Energy Decarbonization Research Articles

Rule-Based Energy Management System to Enhance PV Self-Consumption in a Building: A Real Case

The building sector has an important role in the decarbonization of energy. Buildings energy management systems can act on flexible loads to contribute to the integration of renewable energies. This article presents the design, implementation and evaluation of a rule-based energy management systems (RB-EMS) in the frame of a collective self-consumption (CSC) system based on photovoltaic (PV) energy in the Technology Park of Izarbel, in Bidart, France. The RB-EMS acts on the heat ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system of one of the buildings involved in the CSC in order to maximize the PV energy self-consumption rate (SCR). Internet of things (IoT) has been developed and implemented in order to retrieve consumption, production and temperature data, and to be able to act on the HVAC. A new 5-step methodology has been developed to design and adjust the RB-EMS. This methodology is mainly based on tests carried out to find the relationship between ON/OFF states of the internal units of the HVAC and the heat pumps’ consumption. Finally, the RB-EMS is tested in heating operating mode. The results show that the RB-EMS allows obtaining a SCR of 89%, and that the users comfort limits are respected.

Evaluating priority strategies for decarbonising offshore wind turbine blades through lifecycle assessment

Abstract While offshore wind is at the early stage of expansion, global capacity is expected to increase rapidly, reaching 330 GW by 2031. This work uses lifecycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the opportunity for offshore wind energy decarbonisation through wind blade sustainable developments. The findings from the LCA are used to give informed recommendations towards priority areas of development across the blade lifecycle, that are critical to accelerate the sector’s transition towards net-zero targets. The production of raw materials was found to be the largest contributor to cradle-to-gave global warming potential (GWP). The sector should prioritise the utilisation of more sustainable materials, with an emphasis on the decarbonisation of carbon fibre production. Waste produced during blade manufacturing alone accounts for 10% of the blade’s GWP; therefore, increasing the material efficiency in this phase of the lifecycle is a significant opportunity for blade decarbonisation and should be a focus for the sector going forward. O&M was found to be the second largest contributor to GWP, with full decarbonisation of O&M practices potentially realising an 8% reduction in GWP. A range of alterative blade material scenarios were analysed, finding that recyclable resin systems have the greatest potential to decarbonise offshore blades. There are currently no commercial recycling operations for these resins therefore scale up of the recycling technologies is needed before they can be recycled in practice. Additionally, the development of low impact, economically viable circular solutions for legacy blade waste must be an immediate priority for the wind energy sector, given the anticipated exponential growth in global wind turbine blade waste generation. Graphical abstract

Nuclear Energy's Role in Sustainability and Environmental Protection in India

The world today stands at a critical juncture, grappling with the profound and far-reaching impacts of climate change. The increasing frequency of extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and deteriorating ecosystems only serve to underscore the urgency of transitioning to a low-carbon economy. Governments across the globe are intensifying their climate policies, striving to meet the ambitious goals set forth in international agreements such as the Paris Agreement. Central to these efforts is the systematic decarbonization of national energy mixes [1], where nations are increasingly turning to green and clean technologies to power their economies and ensure sustainable electrification. In this global race to mitigate climate change, renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and hydropower are often highlighted as the vanguards of a sustainable future [2]. However, the challenge lies not only in generating sufficient clean energy but also in ensuring a reliable and continuous supply that can meet the growing demands of an energy-hungry world.

Nuclear Energy's Role in Sustainability and Environmental Protection in India

The world today stands at a critical juncture, grappling with the profound and far-reaching impacts of climate change. The increasing frequency of extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and deteriorating ecosystems only serve to underscore the urgency of transitioning to a low-carbon economy. Governments across the globe are intensifying their climate policies, striving to meet the ambitious goals set forth in international agreements such as the Paris Agreement. Central to these efforts is the systematic decarbonization of national energy mixes [1], where nations are increasingly turning to green and clean technologies to power their economies and ensure sustainable electrification. In this global race to mitigate climate change, renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and hydropower are often highlighted as the vanguards of a sustainable future [2]. However, the challenge lies not only in generating sufficient clean energy but also in ensuring a reliable and continuous supply that can meet the growing demands of an energy-hungry world.

Developing Practical Catalysts for High‐Current‐Density Water Electrolysis

AbstractHigh‐current‐density water electrolysis is considered a promising technology for industrial‐scale green hydrogen production, which is of significant value to energy decarbonization and numerous sustainable industrial applications. To date, substantial research advancements are achieved in catalyst design for laboratory‐based water electrolysis. While the designed catalysts demonstrate remarkable performance at laboratory‐based low current densities, they suffer from marked deteriorations in both activity and long‐term stability under industrial‐level high‐current‐density operations. To provide a timely assessment that helps bridge the gap between laboratory‐scale fundamental research and industrial‐scale practical water electrolysis technology, here the current advancements in various commercial water electrolyzers are first systematically analyzed, then the key parameters including work temperature, current density, lifetime of stacks, cell efficiency, and capital cost of stacks are critically evaluated. In addition, the impact of high current density on the electrocatalytic behavior of catalysts, including intrinsic activity, long‐term stability, and mass transfer, is discussed to advance the catalyst design. Therefore, by covering a range of critical issues from fundamental material design principles to industrial‐scale performance parameters, here the future research directions in the development of highly efficient and low‐cost catalysts are presented and a procedure for screening laboratory‐designed catalysts for industrial‐scale water electrolysis is outlined.

Numerical Modelling Of A Primary Heat Exchanger in sCO2 Power Cycles for Thermal Energy Storage Systems

Abstract Renewable energy sources are the key for long-term decarbonization of energy. However, the intermittent nature of renewables does not always meet the energy demand in the electrical grid. Thus, electrical heated Thermal Energy Storage systems (TES) coupled with sCO2 power cycles are investigated at Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf as a possible solution to balance this mismatch. In this study, a Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE) is considered as candidate for the 1 MW primary heat exchanger, given the mechanical challenge induced by drastic pressure difference between the hot fluid of the TES and the cold fluid of the power cycle. The present work consists of two parts, one elaborates a 1D model in order to optimize the PCHE regarding the pump power required to compensate the pressure loss. It was found that the hot fluid coming from the TES accounts for 80 % of the total pump power after optimization because of its low density and its high mass flow rate. Furthermore, 3D simulations by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) were done and compared to the results from the 1D model to ensure its validity. It was observed that the results from the 1D model and the CFD simulations are consistent, with a slight potential deviation in the calculation of the pressure profile.

Study on the planning and scheduling strategies of the hydrogen supply network for road transportation in deep decarbonization scenarios

As the energy decarbonization continues to advance, hydrogen is gaining momentum. With the increasing demand for hydrogen and the lack of hydrogen infrastructure, it is urgent to solve the problem of hydrogen supply network layout planning. In order to reduce redundant construction of hydrogen supply network infrastructure and increase the rationality of its layout, this paper conducts research on the optimal layout planning of hydrogen supply network infrastructure in the transportation sector. By constructing a two-stage real-time scheduling model of hydrogen supply network, the unit cost composition of hydrogen supply network is more complete and accurate, and the location, technology type and quantity of each link of hydrogen supply network are obtained. The results show that the unit cost of China's hydrogen supply network is 27.8 CNY/kg in 2035 and 19.04 CNY/kg in 2050 under the baseline scenario. Compared with the results of existing literature, the two-stage real-time scheduling model can reduce by 7 % of the hydrogen energy supply network unit cost by decreasing the transportation vehicles and the investment capacity of fixed hydrogen storage equipment. The proposed method of the hydrogen supply network planning can provide policy-makers with the selection of sustainability pathways for dynamic hydrogen infrastructure development planning.

Governance in multi-system transitions: A new methodological approach for actor involvement in policy making processes

Multi-system interactions associated with the decarbonisation of energy and mobility systems represent a complex phenomenon in the acceleration phase of net-zero transitions. In this paper, we present a novel methodological approach to examine actor involvement in the governance of multi-system transitions, with a focus on the UK's net-zero energy-mobility transitions from 2008 to 2021. Utilising Named Entity Recognition (NER), a natural language processing technique, we systematically map actors and their interactions within policy consultations and how these have changed over time. Our analysis differentiates between single-system and multi-system policy making processes; identifies weak and strong links among actors as two types of multi-system interactions; categorises actors into business, policy, academia, and society groups; and examines the evolution of engagement across multiple governance levels. Our findings indicate an increasing trend of multi-system interactions, suggesting the UK's progression towards the acceleration phase of net-zero transitions. Our analysis further reveals the predominance of policy actors, particularly from the national level, in governing such multi-system transitions processes, followed by business actors. Despite some limitations, our approach offers a scalable method for analysing large volumes of text, providing valuable insights into the governance dynamics of multi-system transitions. We conclude with implications for policy making and offer suggestions for future research, emphasising the importance of understanding actor involvement and political contestations around net-zero trajectories for ensuring the achievement of sustainability goals.

Green carbon and the chemical industry of the future

The pressing need to mitigate climate change and drastically reduce environmental pollution and loss of biodiversity has precipitated a so-called energy transition aimed at the decarbonization of energy and defossilization of the chemical industry. The goal is a carbon-neutral (net-zero) society driven by sustainable energy and a circular bio-based economy relying on renewable biomass as the raw material. It will involve the use of green carbon, defined as carbon derived from terrestrial or aquatic biomass or organic waste, including carbon dioxide and methane emissions. It will also necessitate the accompanying use of green hydrogen that is generated by electrolysis of water using a sustainable source of energy, e.g. solar, wind or nuclear. Ninety per cent of the industrial chemicals produced in oil refineries are industrial monomers that constitute the precursors of a large variety of polymers, many of which are plastics. Primary examples of the latter are polyolefins such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and polystyrene. Polyolefins are extremely difficult to recycle back to the olefin monomers and discarded polyolefin plastics generally end up as the plastic waste that is responsible for the degradation of our natural habitat. By contrast, waste biomass, such as the lignocellulose contained in forestry residues and agricultural waste, constitutes a renewable feedstock for the sustainable production of industrial monomers and the corresponding polymers. The latter could be the same polyolefins that are currently produced in oil refineries but a more attractive long-term alternative is to produce polyesters and polyamides that can be recycled back to the original monomers: a paradigm shift to a truly bio-based circular economy on the road to a net-zero chemical industry. This article is part of the discussion meeting issue ‘Green carbon for the chemical industry of the future’.

A 100% Renewable Energy Scenario for Finiq Municipality

The municipality of Finiq, located in southern Albania, is facing several challenges, such as population shrinkage, isolation, and loss of community identity. One of the main issues is related to a non-efficient supply of energy. In this regard, Finiq municipality is affected by frequent blackout of electricity. This is a dramatic issue both for households and companies. Such issue is a paradox since two big hydropower plants are present within the municipality. However, most of the electricity produced by the hydropower plants is supplied outside the municipality. The study is focused on the identification of the most suitable renewable energy sources as well as of their location within the municipality in order to transform Finiq in a 100% renew- able municipality. In addition to offering an affordable source of energy, renewable energy sources provide a wide range of socioeconomic and environmental benefits. The transformation to a 100% renewable energy system in all end-uses would generate new jobs, improve health due to cleaner air and water, as well as increase energy independence and economic growth. Fur- thermore, a 100% renewable scenario would allow to meet the European requirements in terms of energy efficiency and decarbonisation of energy, that can help Albania to make a further step towards the entrance into European Union. Due to agricultural character of the municipality, agrivoltaics (i.e. the simultaneous use of areas of land for both solar photovoltaic power generation and agriculture) can be a valuable option as many crops are suitable to be planted below the photovoltaic panels. Forest heritage is very huge in Finiq municipality, especially in the mountain area. A sustainable management of the forest heritage would allow to create a large amount of biomass that can be exploited for heating purpose, mostly in the area with higher heating demands.

Decoupling Economic Growth from Carbon Emissions: A Transition Toward Low-Carbon Energy Systems—A Critical Review

Climate change has become a global nightmare, and the awareness of the causes of carbon emissions has resulted in rigorous studies. These studies linked the increase in global warming with booming economic growth. Since global warming has become more apparent, researchers have explored ways to decouple economic activities from carbon growth. Economic and carbon growth must be decoupled to achieve a low-carbon economy to support the carbon-growth plan or emission-reduction strategy. The world is transitioning toward a carbon-neutral and green ecosystem, so finding ways to decouple carbon emissions from economic activities is an exciting topic to explore. This study reviews current information on the importance of decoupling energy from economic growth innovative techniques that thoroughly examine the challenges and constraints of low-carbon energy systems. In order to examine the detrimental effects of carbon emissions on ecosystems and the ways in which economic expansion contributes to carbon footprints, more than three hundred research papers were gathered using several search engines, including Elsevier and Google Scholar. This review revealed that decarbonization and dematerialization had been achieved without declining global economic growth. It also provides information on energy use and economic activities leading to global carbon emissions and alternative solutions to the global challenge of climate change. The decoupling methods commonly used to determine the impact of energy decarbonization on economic growth are explored. All the results suggest that economic growth is a primary mover of global carbon emission increase and must be separated to achieve a carbon environment.

Broaden sustainable design and optimization of decarbonized campus Energy systems with scope 3 emissions accounting and social ramification analysis

A holistic approach that considers economic, environmental, and social dimensions is crucial for informed and responsible decision-making in energy system decarbonization. Integrating techno-economic, environmental, and social perspectives, we propose a multi-objective optimization framework for the sustainable design of decarbonized campus energy systems, resonating with the tri-fold principles of Corporate Social Responsibility. This comprehensive approach reveals the techno-economic intricacies inherent in adopting renewable solutions to accommodate cooling, heat, and power demand on university campuses. Our proposed model endeavors to minimize both total annualized costs and the broader spectrum of emissions (Scope 1, 2, and 3) in pursuit of environmental justice. Meanwhile, by merging life cycle assessment (LCA) with economic input-output analysis based on established social LCA databases, we can gauge the potential social impacts associated with these sustainability initiatives. The results serve as a roadmap for designing and operating truly sustainable campus energy systems, pinpointing environmental concerns, suggesting remedial strategies, and spotlighting the resultant social consequences. To showcase the tangible applicability of this holistic modeling framework, we have used real-world data from the main campus of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York State, to develop a case study. Our results show that with a plentiful biogas supply, it is possible to reduce yearly GHG emissions by more than 70%. Even when procurement emissions are left out, Scope 3 emissions still represent 69–82% of the total GHG emissions, dominated by the transportation sector. Turning to sustainable transport options, such as electric vehicles (EVs), can markedly lower these figures. On the socio-economic front, ramping up geothermal drilling could intensify negative social consequences, such as risk of forced labor, conflicts, accidents, and natural disasters, by 29%. These are primarily due to safety issues and the labor demands of earth source heat site preparation, encompassing risks such as forced labor and accidents. As the push for energy decarbonization grows stronger, it is imperative to weigh these downsides against the broader social benefits.

The viability of photovoltaics on agricultural land: Can PV solve the food vs fuel debate?

Policies aiding biofuels have supported farm income and rural communities but have also put pressure on food security with questionable benefits related to carbon emissions. Photovoltaics (PV) are poised to become central to the overall energy decarbonization strategy, but because of land requirements they are likely to be developed on farmland, reigniting concerns related to food security. In this work, we study strategies for co-producing food and energy from corn croplands. We find that while traditional PV displaces crops, they can harvest orders of magnitude more energy per unit of land than biofuels. Additionally, systems with elevated PV panels (called PV Aglectric, Agrivoltaics, or Agrophotovoltaics) that allow for crop production underneath them can increase energy production and reduce carbon emissions with minimal impact on crop production. This technology can ease the trade-off between farm income, energy production, crop production, and energy decarbonization. Adoption of PV Aglectric systems may be hindered by high capital costs, but this barrier could be overcome with policy support, especially when crop prices are highly volatile.

Review on Absorption Refrigeration Technology and Its Potential in Energy-Saving and Carbon Emission Reduction in Natural Gas and Hydrogen Liquefaction

With the requirement of energy decarbonization, natural gas (NG) and hydrogen (H2) become increasingly important in the world’s energy landscape. The liquefaction of NG and H2 significantly increases energy density, facilitating large-scale storage and long-distance transport. However, conventional liquefaction processes mainly adopt electricity-driven compression refrigeration technology, which generally results in high energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. Absorption refrigeration technology (ART) presents a promising avenue for enhancing energy efficiency and reducing emissions in both NG and H2 liquefaction processes. Its ability to utilize industrial waste heat and renewable thermal energy sources over a large temperature range makes it particularly attractive for sustainable energy practices. This review comprehensively analyzes the progress of ART in terms of working pairs, cycle configurations, and heat and mass transfer in main components. To operate under different driven heat sources and refrigeration temperatures, working pairs exhibit a diversified development trend. The environment-friendly and high-efficiency working pairs, in which ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents are new absorbents, exhibit promising development potential. Through the coupling of heat and mass transfer within the cycle or the addition of sub-components, cycle configurations with higher energy efficiency and a wider range of operational conditions are greatly focused. Additives, ultrasonic oscillations, and mechanical treatment of heat exchanger surfaces efficiently enhance heat and mass transfer in the absorbers and generators of ART. Notably, nanoparticle additives and ultrasonic oscillations demonstrate a synergistic enhancement effect, which could significantly improve the energy efficiency of ART. For the conventional NG and H2 liquefaction processes, the energy-saving and carbon emission reduction potential of ART is analyzed from the perspectives of specific power consumption (SPC) and carbon dioxide emissions (CEs). The results show that ART integrated into the liquefaction processes could reduce the SPC and CE by 10~38% and 10~36% for NG liquefaction processes, and 2~24% and 5~24% for H2 liquefaction processes. ART, which can achieve lower precooling temperatures and higher energy efficiency, shows more attractive perspectives in low carbon emissions of NG and H2 liquefaction.

From grey to green? Tipping a coal region incrementally

A rapid and full decarbonisation of both energy and industry is essential to meet the targets in the Paris agreement, which brings coal- and carbon-intensive regions under significant pressure. Some regions have advanced in their transition and can provide insights in the system change processes. In this paper, we investigate the socio-economic transition processes of Essen and Duisburg as part of the wider structural change in the Ruhr Region/ Germany. We explore causes and effects of their trajectories in the last 30 + years and identify differences in outcome as a function of the interventions and/or contextual differences, while investigating whether either city crossed a tipping point in their transition process (yet). Therefore, we specifically evaluate the cities’ development trajectories by seeking evidence for “no”, “incremental” or “radical or tipping” changes in sets of qualitative and quantitative indicators.Our analysis shows that both cities experienced incremental changes in their demographic, economic and political trajectories but we found no evidence for either city to have crossed a tipping point in their transition process yet. However, distinct developments in the cities’ policy narratives and visions indicate qualitative changes while putting them on different development trajectories potentially leading to tipping points in the future. Our study shows that the sequence of interventions and timing are important factors for the trajectory of a region determining the quality of societal change. It also suggests that radical change and tipping are the exception rather than the rule, especially in the highly complex social systems of cities.

Dry reforming of methane over embedded Ni nanoparticles in CeZrO2: Effect of Ce/Zr ratio and H2O addition

Biogas has emerged as renewable source of CH4 towards energy decarbonization in recent years. Among the biogas valorization routes, the dry reforming of methane (DRM) process is particularly interesting for H2 production. However, the development of new catalysts with high metal dispersion and coke resistance is a significant challenge, particularly under industrial condition. Therefore, this work studies the performance of Ni@CexZr1-xO2 catalysts with different Ce/Zr molar ratios for the dry reforming and bi-reforming of methane reactions. The addition of Zr promotes the Ni dispersion and the oxygen mobility of the support, leading to enhanced resistance to coke formation. Additionally, H2O suppresses coke formation under high CH4/CO2 molar ratio, but catalyst deactivation is still observed. Finally, an optimal Ce/Zr molar ratio (i.e., 4.0) is achieved, demonstrating remarkable resistance to coke formation and high CH4 and CO2 conversion rates through the control of Ni particle size and the promotion of oxygen mobility.

Exploring the impact of demand and supply-side interventions on energy decarbonization of freight transportation: a research based on G20 nations

Through quantitative modeling, the study established a dynamic supply and demand system from freight demand, renewable energy production, alternative new energy, renewable energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions to assess the impact of demand-side and supply-side changes on energy decarbonization. The results indicate that adjusting the freight volumes of railway and aviation, renewable energy electricity supply, and the use of alternative new energy sources have varying degrees of impact on decarbonization in transportation. Through interventions on the demand side of freight volumes, CO2 emissions from transportation decrease to levels below those before the intervention-induced fluctuations, while consumption of renewable energy increases to levels above those before the adjustment.

Analyzing the effectiveness of energy aid for driving the transition towards energy decarbonization; Evidence from Asian developing countries

Environmental degradation poses a significant challenge in many developing countries, as they heavily rely on fossil fuels to drive economic activities. The transition towards renewable energy is crucial to mitigate ecological depletion, yet numerous Asian developing countries may struggle to achieve the desired levels of renewable energy adoption due to financial constraints. Foreign aid in the energy sector can expedite this transition process. This study aims to examine the impact of foreign aid on the energy decarbonization transition in 22 Asian developing countries from 2003 to 2022 to analyze its contributions and challenges to promote renewable energy adoption. This paper incorporates the two types of foreign aid in the energy sector (nonrenewable and renewable energy aid) provided by the OECD to developing economies. Utilizing the System-Generalized Method of Moments (Sys-GMM), the findings reveal that energy aid significantly contributes to the transition towards energy decarbonization by providing financial support for embracing renewable energy technologies. Specifically, the analysis indicates that a 1% increase in energy aid leads to approximately 3% enhancement in the decarbonization transition process. Moreover, this study adds to the existing body of knowledge by examining the mediating impact of human capital and financial development as well as the moderating effect of institutional quality and demand for clean fuel. These factors play a pivotal role in energy decarbonization transition by fostering financial development and enhancing human capital through capacity-building initiatives and facilitating the adoption of renewable energy technologies.

Measuring energy transition away from fossil fuels: A new index

With the adoption of carbon neutrality policies, an increasing number of countries have implemented diverse measures to facilitate the energy transition away from fossil fuels. Ascertaining the efficacy of these measures towards meeting the goals of Paris Agreement and carbon neutrality has emerged as a critical concern in recent years. This study offers a comprehensive review of worldwide energy transitions to carbon neutrality, and introduces the Decarbonization Index (DCI), an innovative indicator designed to gauge the progress of a nation's energy transition. The DCI quantifies the extent to which a country moves from the most carbon-intensive energy practices, enhancing quantitative grasp of energy transition logic and its connection to industrial evolution. The strength of the DCI rests in its ability to encapsulate the essence of energy decarbonization: the reduction of carbon in energy consumption. It establishes a definitive baseline for monitoring decarbonization efforts, thereby framing the historical evolution of energy transitions and providing comparative standards for policy formulation. Utilizing the DCI, this study evaluates the carbon neutrality efforts of the 15 highest carbon-emitting nations that have declared carbon neutrality agendas. These findings reveal that South Africa requires the highest annual DCI growth rate to achieve carbon neutrality, while France and Brazil are the most likely to attain this goal, given their substantial non-carbon energy sources such as hydropower and nuclear power. Nevertheless, the study uncovers a general trend: the current business-as-usual scenarios are insufficient to meet carbon neutrality objectives, underscoring an urgent call for accelerated global energy transition efforts.

Ammonia fueled engine with diesel pilot ignition: Approach to achieve ultra-high ammonia substitution

Ammonia is a hydrogen-rich zero-carbon fuel, and is one of the most promising approaches to realize energy decarbonization in the fields of industry and transportation. Efficient operation and emissions control have been the primary obstacle to develop engines with high ammonia energy share. In this study, the combustion and emissions of an ammonia-fueled engine with diesel pilot ignition are investigated, and the target is to achieve ultra-high ammonia substitution with acceptable thermal efficiency. The ammonia energy share is first increased from 30% to 90% at an intermediate load, with a split diesel injection triggering ammonia combustion. It found that the increased ammonia energy share reduces the indicated thermal efficiency from 48.3% to 38.9% with high unburned ammonia emissions. The NOx emissions exhibit a turning point with increased ammonia substitution, which indicates that the NOx emissions transition from the thermal-dominated to the fuel-dominated regime. The diesel pilot injection strategy is then optimized, by advancing the main injection timing and changing the pre-injection amount and the interval between two injection events. Optimized diesel injection controls the ignition timing and combustion process, thereby improving thermal efficiency and emissions at high ammonia energy shares. An ultra-high ammonia energy share of 95% could be finally achieved, and the thermal efficiency is 40.2%. It is also noted that as engine load increases, engine thermal efficiency at an ammonia energy share of 80% could be elevated to 44.2%.