Decades Of Restoration Research Articles

Managing the agroforestry – landscape restoration nexus: lessons from indigenous tree domestication in Cameroon

ABSTRACT The long-term contributions of agroforestry to landscape restoration should be carefully managed. Agroforestry began as early as 1977, meanwhile, landscape restoration, gained traction after the 2011 Bonn Challenge. Since missing the 2020 Bonn Challenge targets, there’s urgency to hit 2030 ambitions and secure the gains later. We use here, the participatory domestication of Irvingia wombolu, as an agroforestry pathway to mosaic landscape restoration. This paper describes the transfer of planting materials of this species between two agroecological regions of Cameroon. Over a twenty-year period; 2003 to 2023. we analyze the steps; reflections; performance of the transferred materials; and mixed fortunes they brought to beneficiary communities. A number of lessons emerge for agroforestry and landscape restoration practices; (i) there is need for future technical and social safeguarding, to support vulnerable segments of beneficiary communities; (ii) the cost of safeguarding should be anticipated; (iii) as the ‘decade of restoration’, looms models are necessary to anticipate the future; (iv) user-friendly models of ecosystem services of agroforestry systems are needed to leverage private sector funding; and (v) a ‘maintenance mentality’ and mechanism for restored landscapes, need to be developed.

Optimizing restoration duration to maximize CO2 uptake on the Tibetan Plateau

Grasslands cover one-third of the terrestrial area, though half of them have been degraded and primarily due to overgrazing. The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is home to the largest area of alpine grassland on Earth, experiencing a typical degradation-restoration story over the past three decades. With the large-scale implementation and long-term duration of ecological projects aimed at restoring degraded grasslands by fencing across the TP, there is considerable uncertainty regarding the direction and magnitude of changes in the carbon (C) sink function. To address this, we combined ten pairs of systematic field observations at the site scale with literature compilation, aiming to clarify whether restoration still contributes to C uptake and its driving factors. Our results show that after a decade of restoration, living biomass was enhanced by over 80 %, and litter accumulation increased by 3.68 ± 1.25 times across all ecosystem types, although these changes were barely reflected in soil C. Litter caused consistent negative impacts on CO2 uptake across all vegetation types, despite restoration having increased CO2 uptake by half in alpine steppes and alpine meadows. This negative impact was more evident in alpine wetlands, where the quantity of litter was double the living biomass. The thick layer of litter produced a shading effect that further limited the photosynthetic yield of living plants, regulating the restoration-induced CO2 gain or loss. Combining 246 cases across the TP further highlights the need to shorten the duration of restoration to maximize CO2 uptake while also benefitting sustainability, which is deserving of attention from both the scientific community and policy-makers.

Enzymatic stoichiometry in degraded soils after two decades of restoration in a Brazilian semiarid region

Land degradation has emerged as a significantly pressing environmental concern, contributing to the decline of soil properties in both arid and semiarid regions. Despite this, there is limited understanding of how degradation and subsequent long-term restoration efforts impact enzymatic stoichiometry in soils of the Brazilian semiarid area. Therefore, our study aimed to quantify C-, N-, and P-acquiring enzymes in soil samples from the Caatinga, a Brazilian semiarid region. We compared three different conditions: (a) Native Caatinga vegetation, primarily dominated by Fabaceae species; (b) Restored land, resulting from two decades of grazing exclusion; and (c) Degraded land due to overgrazing, characterized by high-intensity grazing practices. A total of 54 soil samples were collected at depths of 0–10 cm during both dry and rainy seasons to evaluate the levels of C-, N-, and P-acquiring enzymes and their respective stoichiometries. Our findings revealed that, overall, C- and N-enzymes showed higher and similar levels between native and restored land, whereas these enzyme levels significantly decreased (approximately 60% for C-enzymes and 80% for N-enzymes) in degraded land. Moreover, P-acquiring enzymes exhibited a notable decrease (approximately 70%) in degraded land specifically during the dry season. The degraded land exhibited a higher C/N ratio (8.5) during the rainy season compared to native land (4.8). Conversely, higher values of C/P and N/P ratios (both during rainy seasons) were observed in native land (0.3 and 0.07, respectively). Redundancy analysis showed that native and restored lands clustered with all acquiring enzymes and were notably influenced by key soil properties such as organic C, microbial biomass C, and nutrients. In contrast, degraded land showed correlations with Al3+ and Na+. Our results provide substantial evidence that Caatinga soils affected by degradation may be microbially P-limited. This underscores the necessity of integrating P-enriched amendments or fertilizers and implementing long-term restoration practices.

Positive interactions in shaping neighborhood diversity during secondary forests recovery: Revisiting the classical paradigm

Secondary forests recovery, following disturbances, plays a pivotal role in ecosystem dynamics and biodiversity recovery. Given the rising frequency and intensity of anthropogenic disturbances within forest ecosystems, understanding the mechanisms underlying secondary succession is vital for the effective restoration and conservation of compromised ecosystems. In the classical secondary succession paradigm, early-arriving species are gradually replaced by their later-arriving counterparts. However, over time, valuable historical insights into the involvement of pioneer species become obscured and challenging to discern, particularly in community-scale studies. Consequently, this obscurity has predominantly directed contemporary research predominantly towards examining the consequences of species replacement by later-arriving counterparts during secondary succession. Concurrently, the mechanisms by which pioneer species facilitate or impede the establishment of diversity among later-arriving species remain insufficiently clarified. In this study, we established a 6-ha dynamic forest plot within a secondary forest that has undergone nearly four decades of restoration. Specifically, we utilized the individual species-area relationship (ISAR) framework to evaluate the neighborhood diversity structure of 49 evergreen and 20 deciduous species identified within our evergreen broad-leaved forest plot. Our findings indicate that deciduous tree species undergo a transition from diversity accumulator to repeller in diversity structuring as they progress through different life history stages. On the other hand, evergreen trees either engage in diversity accumulator or neutral. Through repeated plot surveys, we established a comprehensive dataset encompassing the mortality and regeneration of evergreen and deciduous tree species from 2014 to 2020. Spatial covariance models were employed to quantify the distinct effects of density dependence on deciduous and evergreen tree species. The results demonstrate significant negative density dependence mortality and self-thinning in deciduous species at all life history stages. Conversely, adult evergreen tree species facilitate the survival of their seedlings and saplings. In contrast to the classical paradigm that primarily focuses on the replacement of pioneer species by successor species, our findings reveal: (i) self-inhibition mechanisms that shape the neighborhood diversity spatial patterns among deciduous tree species, (ii) self-promotion or neutral mechanisms that influence the diversity spatial patterns of evergreen tree species, and (iii) early-arriving tree species that play a role in facilitating the establishment and diversity of late-arriving counterparts. These results not only signify the significant role of late-arriving species in the natural recovery of secondary forests but also propose that integrating the mechanisms of facilitation, inhibition, and neutral interactions into the classic forest succession paradigm could reshape our interpretation of interactions within plant communities across historical, current, and future timeframes. Such comprehension holds implications for forest management policies and conservation practices.

The benefits of ecological restoration exceed its cost in South Africa: An evidence-based approach

Ecological restoration has become a development intervention of choice at the highest levels of governance at a global level. In due recognition of the restoration of ecosystems’ capability and potential to contribute to economic, ecological and social wellbeing and health, the United Nations and its partners announced the UN decade of restoration which commenced in 2021. The strategic importance of restoration at a time when resources are under serious pressure necessitates that we take stock of what the costs and the benefits of restoration are. We analysed all the known papers published in peer-reviewed journals on the costs and benefits of restoration since 1997 for South Africa to make inferences about the cost-effectiveness thereof.The net present value (NPV) of restoration, using a discount rate of 7% over a 25-year timespan, was estimated for several ecosystems. It was found that given the wide standard deviation of the values observed, mean values have little application. We, therefore, compare the costs and the benefits of restoration according to four cohorts, or quartiles, of values. The NPV/ha for quartile 1 (benefits less costs) and quartile 3 (benefits less costs) in 2020-values are estimated as follows: Fynbos at -US$49/ha and -US$564/ha; rivers, lakes and waterbodies at US$467/ha and US$3 2964/ha; Savanna at US$2974/ha and US$23 657/ha; Grasslands at -US$457/ha and -US$806/ha; Succulent Karoo at -US$205/ha and US$362/ha; Deserts at US$90/ha and US$43/ha; and Thicket at US$2 958/ha and US$4 641/ha.Except for the Succulent Karoo and Fynbos, the benefits of restoration likely exceed its costs, and by some considerable margin in most cases. It is thus recommended that not only more research be conducted in those cases where there are only a few estimates but also that estimates are made for a wider range of benefits. A concerted effort must be made to implement a country-wide restoration programme to the benefit of both the current and future generations.

Applying conventional funding mechanisms to rewilding: the opportunities and challenges for funding rewilding in Europe

As we progress through the United Nations' “Decade of Restoration”, we face the challenge of identifying and developing restoration funding mechanisms for two reasons. First, given past failures at the global level to meet restoration goals, funding mechanisms are needed that allow for scaling up restoration efforts. Second, restoration approaches are changing, with an increasing focus on functional and dynamic restoration goals. Rewilding is an emerging ecological restoration strategy that addresses both of these challenges by restoring self‐sustaining complex ecosystems characterized by minimal human interference. As of yet there has been little attention paid to rewilding in the discussion around restoration funding. We suggest that rewilding offers a promising avenue for restoration funding in Europe. However, the unique characteristics of rewilding may also lead to challenges when attempting to tap into existing funding streams, which may need to be modified to better suit rewilding special needs.

Meta-analysis of ecosystem services associated with oyster restoration.

Restoration of foundation species promises to reverse environmental degradation and return lost ecosystem services, but a lack of standardized evaluation across projects limits understanding of recovery, especially in marine systems. Oyster reefs are restored to reverse massive global declines and reclaim valuable ecosystem services, but the success of these projects has not been systematically and comprehensively quantified. We synthesized data on ecosystem services associated with oyster restoration from 245 pairs of restored and degraded reefs and 136 pairs of restored and reference reefs across 3500km of U.S. Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coastlines. On average, restoration was associated with a 21-fold increase in oyster production (mean log response ratio=3.08 [95% confidence interval: 2.58-3.58]), 34-97% enhancement of habitat provisioning (mean community abundance=0.51 [0.41-0.61], mean richness=0.29 [0.19-0.39], and mean biomass=0.69 [0.39-0.99]), 54% more nitrogen removal (mean=0.43 [0.13-0.73]), and 89-95% greater sediment nutrients (mean=0.67 [0.27-1.07]) and organic matter (mean=0.64 [0.44-0.84]) relative to degraded habitats. Moreover, restored reefs matched reference reefs for these ecosystem services. Our results support the continued and expanded use of oyster restoration to enhance ecosystem services of degraded coastal systems and match many functions provided by reference reefs.

The short-term and long-term effects of honeysuckle removal on canopy structure and implications for urban forest management

Riparian forests across the continental United States are heavily invaded by Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii (Rupr.)), an invasive shrub which suppresses native plants, homogenizes community structure and composition, and alters ecosystem processes. However, no studies have quantified the impacts of honeysuckle removal on forest canopy structure across the first decade of restoration. In this study we used a portable canopy LiDAR (PCL) to characterize the immediate (<1 year), short-term (1–2 years) and long-term (>10 years) impacts of honeysuckle removal on the horizontal and vertical complexity of canopy structure in 5 heavily invaded riparian forests in Ohio. Within two years of removal, forest canopies had a 40% reduction in canopy leaf volume, a greater average height of maximum canopy density, and increased aggregation of the remaining leaf area around trees than pre-removal conditions. Honeysuckle removal also prompted long-term (>10 years) increases in canopy structural complexity, but only in areas with initially high honeysuckle abundance and low native tree density. Honeysuckle cover had a much stronger influence on canopy structure than either its basal area or stem density. Our results suggest that removing honeysuckle from heavily-invaded stands can promote complex canopy structure over the long-term that is beyond the short-term accrual immediately following disturbance, but might depend on initial stand conditions.

Urban conservation gardening in the decade of restoration

Urban conservation gardening in the decade of restoration

Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation

Regions of intense fragmentation and landscape transformation can indicate patterns of conversion of forest areas in space and time, challenging the resilience of ecosystems and driving the degradation of natural resources. In this study, we analyzed the dynamics of use, loss, and gain of Atlantic forests in the southern region of Bahia State in the last thirty-four years (1985–2019) based on pre and post-implementation of forest production policies. The area has ecological, historical, and cultural importance, and is the most conserved portion of the Atlantic Forest in northeastern Brazil. From the remote sensing products of the MapBiomas Project and spatial analyses of land use and forests, we evaluated a conflicted region that has 751 km of coastline and seventy municipalities. Our results indicate a degraded landscape, with 59% of the territory occupied by anthropogenic activities and intense fragmentation. The planting of eucalyptus forests and pasture stood out as landscape modifiers. The results show a loss of 328,595 ha of Atlantic Forest in the period under study, with a large part of this area being replaced by planted forests of Eucalyptus sp derivated the policies economics of the sector. It is urgent to consider the recovery of the Atlantic domain, prioritizing the capacity of ecosystems, especially in the Decade of Restoration.

Existing land uses constrain climate change mitigation potential of forest restoration in India

AbstractMany countries have made ambitious pledges to increase forest areas to mitigate climate change. However, the availability of land to meet these goals is not well understood. Global studies indicate substantial potential, but do not account for local land‐use and regional variation, crucial for policy making. Using India as a case study, we use a machine learning framework to define the bioclimatic envelope of forest cover and map this against current land‐uses with varying suitability for restoration. We estimate the additional feasible area for restoration to be only 1.58 Mha, cumulatively sequestering 61.3 TgC, which is substantially less than estimates derived from global studies. However, we also find up to 14.67 Mha of opportunity for agroforestry in current agricultural land, delivering up to 98.1 TgC nationally. In the UN Decade of Restoration, we recommend developing forest restoration strategies that are compatible with existing land‐uses, such as agroforestry, especially in countries that have large smallholder agriculture holdings.

A synthesis and future research directions for tropical mountain ecosystem restoration

Many tropical mountain ecosystems (TME) are severely disturbed, requiring ecological restoration to recover biodiversity and ecosystem functions. However, the extent of restoration efforts across TMEs is not known due to the lack of syntheses on ecological restoration research. Here, based on a systematic review, we identify geographical and thematic research gaps, compare restoration interventions, and consolidate enabling factors and barriers of restoration success. We find that restoration research outside Latin-America, in non-forested ecosystems, and on socio-ecological questions is scarce. For most restoration interventions success is mixed and generally limited by dispersal and microhabitat conditions. Finally, we propose five directions for future research on tropical mountain restoration in the UN decade of restoration, ranging from scaling up restoration across mountain ranges, investigating restoration in mountain grasslands, to incorporating socio-economic and technological dimensions.

Reconnecting nature

The U.N. has declared 2021-2030 the 'decade of restoration' (https://www.decadeonrestoration.org). This initiative aspires to many actions, but its agenda must include 'reconnecting nature'. Even when natural habitats remain, they often come in fragments too small or isolated to sustain viable populations. Human activities surround habitats with unsuitable areas or constrict animals' movements with artificial barriers, such as roads or fences. The harm this fragmentation causes is evident. Here, we discuss various actions to mitigate its problems, seeking explicit evidence of their efficacy. These actions range from small-scale, controlled experiments to continent-wide programmes to allow species the freedom to roam. Even simple connections, such as highway overpasses or tunnels, usually allow movement such that the genetic and demographic problems that beset small, isolated populations may be diminished. Showing that species move when we give them the chance to do so may be a sufficient measure of success, even if we do not always understand the consequences in detail.

Seasonal and long-term trends in the spatial heterogeneity of lake phytoplankton communities over two decades of restoration and climate change

World-wide, reducing the external nutrient loading to lakes has been the primary priority of lake management in the restoration of eutrophic lakes over the past decades, and as expected this has resulted in an increase in the local environmental heterogeneity, and thus biotic heterogeneity, within lakes. However, little is known about how the regional spatial heterogeneity of lake biotic communities changes with restoration across a landscape. Using a long-term monitoring dataset from 20 Danish lakes, we elucidated the seasonal and long-term trends in the spatial heterogeneity of climate, local abiotic variables and phytoplankton communities over two decades of restoration and climate change at landscape level. We found significant seasonality in the spatial heterogeneity of most climatic and local drivers as well as in the total beta diversity (Sørensen coefficient) and its turnover components (Simpson coefficient) of phytoplankton communities among the lakes. The seasonality tended to be less marked in deep than in shallow lakes. We found significant spatial homogenisation of most local drivers (except for alkalinity) and phytoplankton communities after two decades of restoration and that turnover dominated the temporal responses of the total beta diversity of phytoplankton communities. Path analyses showed that the homogenisation of phytoplankton communities was mainly due to a decrease in spatial heterogeneity of total phosphorus and Schmidt stability in shallow lakes and to a decrease in spatial total phosphorus and total nitrogen heterogeneity in deep lakes. However, albeit weakly, the spatial heterogeneity of the phytoplankton communities was affected indirectly by climatic warming in both shallow and deep lakes and directly by wind speed in shallow lakes. We conclude that restoration of eutrophic lakes may lead to an increase in the local heterogeneity of phytoplankton communities at lake scale and an increase in homogeneity at landscape scale.

Restoration ecology: the study of applied optimism

As a young trainee in the field of restoration ecology in the modern age, it is difficult to feel optimistic about our future. As many environmental protections are de‐regulated and the climate crisis heightens, I turned to restoration to find hope in a changing world. Restoration ecologists are the optimists of biology. We work every day to make the world a better place and our passion and forward thinking spurred the United Nation's “decade of restoration.” Learning about the successes of the hardworking members of this field gives me hope. As the earth moves toward an unimaginable future, we should continue to try to make the world a better place and encourage those around us to act and restore the environments they value, whether it be large‐scale restoration or preserving garden pollinator habitat. I am forever thankful to restoration ecology and the optimism the field provides.

A review of Chinese ethnology in the past hundred years and its summary in the new era

Ethnology has been introduced into China in the early twentieth century. Its hundred-year evolution can be divided into three phases: ethnology in the “Old China”; ethnology in the “New China”, and ethnology in the “New Era” (1978–2008). In the phase of “Old China”, relying on introducing the western approaches both in theory and methodology, the Chinese ethnological community offered courses of ethnology and anthropology in dozens of universities. In the 1950s, the early years of “New China”, Chinese ethnology became a branch of the Soviet school and made great contributions to ethnic identification, as well as studies on the society and history of ethnic minorities, providing the basis and reference for the “New China” government to formulate ethnic policies. During the “New Period”, after 30 years of isolation from the outside world, Chinese ethnology entered again into Western academia and became a member of the international ethnological society. Now, Chinese ethnology has been constructed as an open academic domain and lifted out of the stereotype based on a certain school or ideology. Moreover, it has established its own school with localized characteristic, that is, a historically functional school directed by Marxism.Before the “New Period”, ethnology was revoked due to its characteristic as a “bourgeois” and “revisionist” discipline, but Chinese ethnology has embarked on a most fruitful period of rapid growth since 1978. The past three decades also can be divided into three periods: a decade of restoration and reconstruction in the 1980s, a decade of early development and expansion of research scope in the 1990s, and the decade of golden development after the year 2000.

Restoration over time: is it possible to restore trees and non‐trees in high‐diversity forests?

AbstractQuestionsDo different growth forms have distinct temporal patterns of recovery of their structure, diversity, and composition in restored Atlantic Rain forest? Are tree and non‐tree assemblages structured by the same factors?LocationAtlantic Rain Forest, restored by planting an assemblage of high‐diversity tree species, Brazil.MethodsWe measured plant colonization of restoration sites of different ages to evaluate restoration success in terms of species diversity, colonization by non‐tree species and structure measures among stands. We used Procrustes analysis to test whether the same conditions that influence tree composition influence non‐tree composition (congruence between non‐trees and trees present on the same sites).ResultsMany structural aspects of recovering forests, e.g. tree basal area, canopy cover, height, tree richness, and non‐tree floristic composition resembled a mature forest within five decades. Although tree species diversity increased according to restoration age of sites, planted sites did not recover the richness of all growth forms even after five decades of restoration, and particularly lacked climbers and epiphytes. We detected significant similarity between corresponding points (tree and non‐tree composition) from separate ordinations only in the reference forest. Therefore, naturally assembled communities are more concordant than those originating from active restoration.ConclusionNon‐tree assemblages respond to different factors than the tree assemblages in restoration sites. Hence, non‐tree recovery may not result as a natural consequence of tree recovery, and specific restoration strategies for non‐tree species must be applied. Tree richness recovered after two decades. Only half of the non‐tree species richness was recovered in old restoration sites, but their composition similarity reached expected levels of reference values. Further studies will investigate if low richness of non‐tree species is a consequence of low input of allochthonous propagules (landscape filter) or whether they are arriving but not establishing (environmental filter). Enrichment planting of non‐tree species may be required if the problem is propagule input. We recommend enrichment planting should be implemented within 10 yrs after initial restoration planting because of the need for trees as supporting structures. However, if propagules are arriving but not establishing, the solution is to detect which environmental filters are important and to manipulate them through forest management.

Changes in soil properties, microbial biomass, and fluxes of C and N in soil following post-agricultural grassland restoration

Understanding the dynamics of soil C and N pools and fluxes following grassland restoration in formerly cultivated soils is needed to assess the capacity of this land-use change to return soil properties and function to pre-disturbance conditions. We examined changes in physical (bulk density) and chemical (pH, available P and N, and total stocks of C and N) properties, microbial biomass C and N, and transformation rates of C and N in soil (0–10cm depth) across a 35-year chronosequence of prairie restorations and never-cultivated (native) prairie to evaluate the rate and extent to which sowing native perennial plants into formerly cultivated soils returns soil to steady state conditions. Bulk density, available P, and extractable inorganic N decreased exponentially across the chronosequence. Soil pH increased linearly across the chronosequence to exceed that in native prairie soil. Total C and N stocks in cultivated soil were <50% that of native prairie, and increased at rates of 26.2gCm−2year−1 and 1.68gNm−2year−1 across the chronosequence. In the oldest restoration, total C and N stocks were 55% and 41% higher than the cultivated soil, respectively. Recovery of C and N stocks to levels comparable to native prairie soil was estimated to take 350 years. Microbial biomass C and N increased 5-fold. Potential C mineralization rate was comparable to native prairie soil following two decades of restoration, and exceeded native prairie in the 35-years restoration. In situ soil CO2 efflux reached equilibrium in <30 years. Potential net N mineralization rate, however, did not exhibit a directional change across the restoration chronosequence, but was lowest in the oldest restored grasslands. Thus, cessation of tillage and sowing native vegetation leads to rapid decreases in available N and P, and promotes rapid (decadal scale) recovery of labile soil organic matter pools, but recovery of total C and N pools requires several centuries. This study suggests that soil properties related to nutrient retention and regulation of nutrient availability can be reestablished within the first few decades of restoration, while C sequestration will continue on a longer time scale.

Flower functional trait responses to restoration time

AbstractQuestions(1) Do species richness, flower functional diversity and redundancy of tree and non‐tree species increase with restoration age; (2) are the flower traits of the reference forest similar to those found in restored sites; and (3) does species originality, in terms of unique combinations of different set of flower traits, differ among sites?LocationForests restored by planting a high diversity assemblage of tree species, within the Atlantic Rain Forest, Brazil.MethodsWe sampled all reproductive individuals (353 species) and classified them in terms of floral type, colour, size, generalization level and openness. As most trees were planted and non‐tree species (sub‐shrub, shrub, herbs, epiphytes, climbers and hemi‐parasitic plants) were mostly naturally established, we analysed them in separate analyses. We compared species richness, functional diversity, redundancy and originality among sites. Moreover, we identified optimal subsets of flower traits to describe vegetation succession trends.Results(1) Flower functional diversity of tree species could be achieved after two decades of restoration, but remained far from reference values for non‐tree species. The same gap regarding reference values occurred with species richness, which increased over restoration periods, although were far from the reference values. Redundancy and functional diversity are not related to restoration age. (2) Red/burgundy colour, gullet and bell‐funnel shape and large size were identified as indicators of the reference forest flowers. Different indicator traits were found for each restoration sites. (3) Sites were similar regarding originality for tree and for non‐tree species.ConclusionA highly diverse species pool seems to promise to increase richness and functional diversity of tree species, but not of non‐tree species. Trait analyses have important implications for restoration projects and can be used instead of species taxonomic identity, especially for highly diverse tropical forests. Such functional diversity may be advanced through a priori definition of which species from the regional pool can be used in plantings for forest restoration, with special attention to functional traits of non‐tree species. Otherwise, restoration sites in highly fragmented landscapes will not reach functional diversity of reference sites, even after a five‐decade period.

Flower and Fruit Availability along a Forest Restoration Gradient

AbstractFrugivores and pollinators are two functional groups of animals that help ensure gene flow of plants among sites in landscapes under restoration and to accelerate restoration processes. Resource availability is postulated to be a key factor to structure animal communities using restoration sites, but it remains poorly studied. We expected that diverse forests with many plant growth forms that have less‐seasonal phenological patterns will provide more resources for animals than forests with fewer plant growth forms and strongly seasonal phenological patterns. We studied forests where original plantings included high tree species diversity. We studied resource provision (richness and abundance of flowers and fruits) of all plant growth forms, in three restoration sites of different ages compared to a reference forest, investigating whether plant phenology changes with restoration process. We recorded phenological data for reproductive plant individuals (351 species) with monthly sampling over 2 years, and found that flower and fruit production have been recovered after one decade of restoration, indicating resource provision for fauna. Our data suggest that a wide range of plant growth forms provides resource complementarities to those of planted tree species. Different flower phenologies between trees and non‐trees seem to be more evident in a forest with high non‐tree species diversity. We recommend examples of ideal species for planting, both at the time of initial planting and post‐planting during enrichment. These management actions can minimize shortage and periods of resource scarcity for frugivorous and nectarivorous fauna, increasing probability of restoring ecological processes and sustainability in restoration sites.