Poultry Deaths Research Articles

National surveillance and control costs for highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 in poultry: A benefit-cost assessment for a developing economy, Nigeria

We conducted benefit-cost analysis of outbreak and surveillance costs for HPAI H5N1in poultry in Nigeria. Poultry's death directly cost US$ 939,734.0 due to outbreaks. The integrated disease surveillance and response originally created for comprehensive surveillance and laboratory investigation of human diseases was adapted for HPAI H5N1 in poultry. Input data were obtained from the field, government documents and repositories and peer-reviewed publications. Actual/forecasted bird numbers lost were integrated into a financial model and estimates of losses were calculated. Costs of surveillance as alternative intervention were determined based on previous outbreak control costs and outputs were generated in SurvCost® with sensitivity analyses for different scenarios.Uncontrolled outbreaks will lead to loss of over US$ 2.2 billion annually in Nigeria with 47.8% of the losses coming from eggs. The annual cost of all animal related health activities was <US$ 99.0 million, only one-third of this amount was linked with H5N1 surveillance and response activities. Recurrent cost was 96.2% of the total surveillance and response costs, and 31.0% of the HPAI surveillance cost was spent on personnel with 3.8% as capital cost. Cost-wisely, routine monitoring and surveillance for HPAI are 68 times more cost effective than to do nothing. Assuming that successful control and eradication of HPAI H5N1 is partially attributable to H5N1 surveillance and response, a quarter or half of the success will result in 17 or 34 times more benefits. Although animal surveillance and response activities for avian influenza appeared expensive, their implementation are economically cost beneficial for developing countries.

Lectin affinity based elemental labeling with hybridization chain reaction for the sensitive determination of avian influenza A (H9N2) virions

Avian influenza virus (AIV) as a type of highly pathogenic influenza A virus, can not only cause serious illness and death in poultry but also threat human health and lead to public panic. Rapid, sensitive detection of AIV is urgent and significant for prevention and timely control of influenza epidemics. Herein, we reported an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) based method for the analysis of AIV virions on the basis of the selective recognition between lectin Con A and glycoproteins on AIV surface and signal amplification of hybridization chain reaction (HCR). With H9N2 as the model AIV, the limit of detection was down to 0.12 ng mL−1 due to the dual amplification effect of AuNPs and HCR, and the linear range was 0.4–50 ng mL−1 with the relative standard deviation of 7.9% for seven replicate detections of 2 ng mL−1 H9N2 virions. Furthermore, the applicability of the method for the analysis of real biological samples was demonstrated by the spiking tests. The proposed approach is highly specific and sensitive for the detection of AIV with good application potential in early diagnosis, which is helpful for the prevention of influenza outbreak.

Overview of the Situation on Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus H5 in Russia in 2016–2017

In 2016–2017, several outbreaks among wild and domestic birds caused by highly pathogenic influenza virus were recorded in the territory of the Russian Federation. After isolation of the highly pathogenic influenza A (H5N8) virus in the territory of the Republic of Tyva in May 2016, the virus was introduced into the west by wild birds, where it caused a massive epizootic. The death of agricultural poultry was noted in several regions of the European part of Russia and epizootics continued until the end of 2017. This paper presents the data on circulation of highly pathogenic influenza virus over the past two years. The current status regarding H5 influenza in the territory of the Russian Federation is also considered, where for the first time since 2005 a large-scale epizooty caused by the influenza virus subtype A (H5N8) was recorded. It is shown that the territory of Russia plays an important geographical role in the spread of influenza virus by wild birds from Southeast Asia to Europe and North America, and the research also suggests the possible continuation of circulation of highly pathogenic viruses in the territory of Russia.

Mapping the spread of Avian Influenza Virus in Poultry at Polewali Mandar Regency, 2008-2013

The spread of Avian Influenza (AI) virus have a significant impact on the decline in the bird population, economic losses, and food safety. The purpose of this study was to determine level and patterns of distribution AI in chicken at Polewali Mandar Regency, period 2008-2013. The results showed that in 2008 to 2013 cases of poultry deaths by AI has spread in 13 districts of the total 16 districts and 53 villages of the total 167 villages in Polewali Mandar Regency. It shows that 81,25% of district and 31,74% of villages in Polewali Mandar has been infected with AI. The number of deaths of poultry caused AI period 2008 to 2013 is 49,182. The chicken that are infected native chicken, broiler, ornamental chickens (Philipin), cuckoo, rooster, and ducks. The chicken reared in backyard and commercial poultry sector 3 with the number of chicken are 10-10000. Trend increase in cases of poultry death by AI period 2008 to 2013 in Polewali Mandar generally occurs in January, February, March, July, September, November, and December.

SISTEM PAKAR MENDIAGNOSA PENYAKIT PADA UNGGAS DENGAN METODE TEOREMA BAYES BERBASIS WEB

Poultry has many benefits such as its eggs and meat that cannot be separated from the needs of daily consumption. However, there is a major problem that almost experienced every year for the breders. The disease in poultry is a serious problem that becomes obstacles for the breeders. Based on this problem, the application maker made an expert system application to diagnose the disease in poultry with Bayes theorem method. This application is expected to help the breeders in diagnosing the disease in poultry, therefore the death of poultry can be minimized. This application has been successfully designed and implemented using notepad ++ and php MySQL through several steps of main menu design system, those are; consultation, diseases, and aid. The coding making is done in notepad ++ application. Then making the database is done in php MySQL. The result reveals that this application is made to identify the disease based on the existing symptoms. In testing, 10 breeders stated that this application can help diagnose the disease in poultry.

Differences in expression of genes in the MyD88 and TRIF signalling pathways and methylation of TLR4 and TRIF in Tibetan chickens and DaHeng S03 chickens infected with Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis

Salmonella enterica serovar (S. enteritidis) is a pathogenic bacterium that can cause symptoms of food poisoning, leading to death of poultry, resulting in serious economic losses. The MyD88 and TRIF signalling pathways play important roles in activating innate and adaptive immunity in chickens infected with S. enteritidis. The objective of the present study was to characterize in vivo mRNA expressions, protein levels and methylation levels of genes in the above two pathways in both Tibetan chickens and DaHeng S03 chickens infected with S. enteritidis. MyD88-dependent and TRIF-dependent signalling pathway were activated by infection, and the MyD88 signalling pathway induced cytokines LITAF and IL-8 played important roles in fighting against the S. enteritidis infection in vivo. The TLR4 methylation might alter expression of genes involved in the MyD88 signalling pathway, and thus different breeds of chickens might show differences in susceptibility to the S. enteritidis. The increased expression of INF β was activated by S. enteritidis, but its expressions were different in levels of mRNA and protein in Tibetan chickens and DaHeng chickens, suggesting its functions on the resistance to S. enteritidis infection in chickens. This study contributes to the understanding of two pathways activated in response to S. enteritidis infection, and gives indications on the mechanisms underlying resistance of Tibetan chickens and DaHeng chickens to S. enteritidis.

Outbreaks among Wild Birds and Domestic Poultry Caused by Reassorted Influenza A(H5N8) Clade 2.3.4.4 Viruses, Germany, 2016.

In November 2016, an influenza A(H5N8) outbreak caused deaths of wild birds and domestic poultry in Germany. Clade 2.3.4.4 virus was closely related to viruses detected at the Russia–Mongolia border in 2016 but had new polymerase acidic and nucleoprotein segments. These new strains may be more efficiently transmitted to and shed by birds.

Newcastle disease vaccines—A solved problem or a continuous challenge?

Newcastle disease (ND) has been defined by the World Organisation for Animal Health as infection of poultry with virulent strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Lesions affecting the neurological, gastrointestinal, respiratory, and reproductive systems are most often observed. The control of ND must include strict biosecurity that prevents virulent NDV from contacting poultry, and also proper administration of efficacious vaccines. When administered correctly to healthy birds, ND vaccines formulated with NDV of low virulence or viral-vectored vaccines that express the NDV fusion protein are able to prevent clinical disease and mortality in chickens upon infection with virulent NDV. Live and inactivated vaccines have been widely used since the 1950’s. Recombinant and antigenically matched vaccines have been adopted recently in some countries, and many other vaccine approaches have been only evaluated experimentally. Despite decades of research and development towards formulation of an optimal ND vaccine, improvements are still needed. Impediments to prevent outbreaks include uneven vaccine application when using mass administration techniques in larger commercial settings, the difficulties associated with vaccinating free-roaming, multi-age birds of village flocks, and difficulties maintaining the cold chain to preserve the thermo-labile antigens in the vaccines. Incomplete or improper immunization often results in the disease and death of poultry after infection with virulent NDV. Another cause of decreased vaccine efficacy is the existence of antibodies (including maternal) in birds, which can neutralize the vaccine and thereby reduce the effectiveness of ND vaccines. In this review, a historical perspective, summary of the current situation for ND and NDV strains, and a review of traditional and experimental ND vaccines are presented.

ГОСТРА ТОКСИЧНІСТЬ ГЛІФОСАТУ ДЛЯ ПЕРЕПЕЛІВ

The article deals with the data on the establishment of acute toxicity herbicide glyphosate for quail for oral administration. Glyphosate - the herbicide with broad spectrum of activity. In experiments it was used glyphosate in the form of potassium salt preparation with the concentration of 676 g/dm3. The experiments were carried out on 91 female of Texas quail breeds the average weight is (200.0 ± 20.0) g, and were kept under optimal conditions of vivarium. According to the principle of analogues were formed 4 experimental groups, which were administered glyphosate in the form of an aqueous emulsion in doses - 50, 500, 2000, and 5000 mg/kg of body weight. For clinical state of the research poultry it was observed for 14 days. It was noted the emergence and the development of clinical signs of poisoning, term loss or recovery period to physiological norm. A single intragastric administration of water glyphosate emulsion to quail of I - III research groups caused no picture of acute poisoning. In the poultry from the experimental group during the first six hours of the experiment it was recorded gradual growth inhibition. For acute poisoning in quail it was showed depression, poor response to external stimuli, sitting in one place. Poultry death was observed in this group during the first day after the introduction of glyphosate. On pathoanatomical autopsy it was established that the absence of the oral cavity mucous membranes changes, pharynx trachea and esophagus; increased liver, filled with blood, dark cherry colour, gallbladder filled with bile, blood supply vessels of the small intestine, it was observed swelling of the blind shoots the colon; kidneys increased in volume compared to the control group swelling of the large bowel; kidneys increased in volume compared to the control group. According to the results of the quail death DL50 was calculated, which was 5039.11 ± 222.96 mg/kg, which gives reason to include glyphosate according hygienic classification of pesticides for L.I. Medvedj and DSP 8.8.1.2.002-98 to little toxic substances to (4th class of danger).

Raising Backyard Poultry in Rural Bangladesh: Financial and Nutritional Benefits, but Persistent Risky Practices.

Poultry is commonly raised by households in rural Bangladesh. In 2007, the Government of Bangladesh began a mass media campaign to disseminate 10 recommended precautions to prevent transmission of H5N1 from poultry to humans. This longitudinal study explored the contribution of backyard poultry on household economy and nutrition and compared poultry-raising practices to government recommendations. From 2009 to 2012, we enrolled a nationally representative sample of 2489 primary backyard poultry raisers from 115 rural villages selected by probability proportional to population size. Researchers interviewed the raisers to collect data on poultry-raising practices. They followed the raisers for 2-12months to collect data on household income and nutrition from poultry. Income from backyard poultry flocks accounted for 2.8% of monthly household income. Return on annual investment (ROI) per flock was 480%. Yearly, median family consumption of eggs was one-fifth of the total produced eggs and three poultry from their own flock. Respondents' reported practices conflicted with government recommendations. Sixty per cent of raisers had never heard of avian influenza or 'bird flu'. Among the respondents, 85% handled sick poultry or poultry that died due to illness, and 49% slaughtered or defeathered sick poultry. In 37% of households, children touched poultry. Fifty-eight per cent never washed their hands with soap after handling poultry, while <1% covered their nose and mouth with a cloth when handling poultry. Only 3% reported poultry illness and deaths to local authorities. These reported practices did not improve during the study period. Raising backyard poultry in rural Bangladesh provides important income and nutrition with an excellent ROI. Government recommendations to reduce the risk of avian influenza transmission did not impact the behaviour of poultry producers. Further research should prioritize developing interventions that simultaneously reduce the risk of avian influenza transmission and increase productivity of backyard poultry.

Herbal Remedies for Coccidiosis Control: A Review of Plants, Compounds, and Anticoccidial Actions.

Coccidiosis is the bane of the poultry industry causing considerable economic loss. Eimeria species are known as protozoan parasites to cause morbidity and death in poultry. In addition to anticoccidial chemicals and vaccines, natural products are emerging as an alternative and complementary way to control avian coccidiosis. In this review, we update recent advances in the use of anticoccidial phytoextracts and phytocompounds, which cover 32 plants and 40 phytocompounds, following a database search in PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Four plant products commercially available for coccidiosis are included and discussed. We also highlight the chemical and biological properties of the plants and compounds as related to coccidiosis control. Emphasis is placed on the modes of action of the anticoccidial plants and compounds such as interference with the life cycle of Eimeria, regulation of host immunity to Eimeria, growth regulation of gut bacteria, and/or multiple mechanisms. Biological actions, mechanisms, and prophylactic/therapeutic potential of the compounds and extracts of plant origin in coccidiosis are summarized and discussed.

Containing an Outbreak of Human Pathogenic Avian Influenza Outbreak in Nadia district of West Bengal-India

Background: On 12th September 2011, unusual poultry deaths were reported from a poultry farm at Putimari Christianpara under Tehatta Gram Panchayat. On 14th September there were more deaths accordingly, samples were collected and sent to the Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Kolkata. Preliminary reports confirmed the presence of avian influenza. High Security Disease Detection Laboratory at Bhopal confirmed avian influenza. The state Govt notified the outbreak as avian influenza on 19th September 2010. This outbreak was investigated and epidemiological characteristic & containment measures were described. Material and Methods: Operational definition of avian influenza was established. Fever surveillance in animals and human beings was conducted within 10 kms radius of epicenters. Culling was conducted. All health workers, and cullers were examined and prophylaxis was administered. Results: Out of total 56 Gram Panchayat 25(45%) were affected. Out of 568 villages 131(23%) were affected. Out of 131 affected villages 22 were in the core area and the rest outside. Population affected was estimated to be 400007. Mean population covered per day was 104603 (26%). Conclusion: In all 217 cases were detected with upper respiratory tract but none matched the case definition of avian influenza. Key words: Avian Influenza, H5N1, Surveillance, Culling, Nadia District, West Bengal

Molecular analysis of hemaglutinin gene of Avian Influenza viruses isolated in 2012-2013

Avian Influenza virus (AIV) still plays as a major cause of the death in poultry in Indonesia and around the world. The aim of this research was to determine the pathogenicity and to analyze the phylogenetic and genetic distances of hemagglutinin gene of isolated AI viruses in Indonesia in 2012-2013 particularly from West Java, Central Java, and North Sumatra. Samples were obtained from poultry farms that suffered from AI outbreaks, were inoculated and propagated in ten days old specific pathogen free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs. Harvested allantoic fluids at 5 days after inoculation were tested for hemagglutination activity. Positive allantoic fluids were further tested to determine the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subtype using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR) and to be prepared for sequencing using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The sequence of hemagglutinin genes were analyzed for the amino acid pattern of the cleavage site region and the genetic distances and relationships of those viruses. The result indicated that all of the isolates are classified as HPAI with the pattern of cleavage site regions are QRESRRKKR and QRERRRKR. Six isolates are classified as H5N1 and 3 isolates are H5Nx. All of the isolates have close genetic relationship with the genetic distances less than 0.3 between one to another and also with several AI viruses that caused previous outbreaks in Indonesia.

Where will H5 flu viruses travel to next?

Infectious Disease Avian influenza viruses can cause severe illness and even death in domestic poultry. In the past two decades, a particular group of viruses termed H5 viruses have caused repeated outbreaks after first emerging in China. In a Perspective, Verhagen et al. trace the recent spread of

Community preparedness for highly pathogenic Avian influenza on Bali and Lombok, Indonesia

The Asia-Pacific region is the likeliest location for the next significant outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). Indonesia has experienced HPAI H5N1 outbreaks in poultry and humans each year since 2003 and has had the highest case fatality rate for human cases. The purposes of this study were to capture the knowledge of avian influenza and of poultry-raising practices in two regions of Indonesia and to evaluate the impact and extent of activities undertaken to 2010 through the National Strategic Plan for Avian Influenza Control at the village level. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used to investigate the multiple influences on behaviours, decisions and actions taken by poultry-raising households, and by villages and communities, regarding the threat of HPAI. Between June 2010 and May 2011 a structured survey of 400 households was conducted on Lombok and of 402 on Bali, inviting Sector 3 (small-scale independent commercial poultry farms) and Sector 4 (village household) poultry raisers to participate. Focus groups and in-depth interviews were convened with key stakeholders, including livestock and animal health and public health officials, community leaders and villagers. From the focus group and in-depth interviews, it appears that the flow of information through the national HPAI control program has been efficient at the top levels (from national to provincial, then to districts and subdistricts). However, these findings show that effective transmission of information from subdistrict to rural village level and from village leaders to community members has been limited. The degree of community preparedness for HPAI on Bali and Lombok appears minimal. Knowledge of government activities was more extensive at Bali sites, while only limited government programs and activities occurred at the village level on Lombok. Activities conducted by government agencies from provincial to village level were limited in scope and need to be further developed to ensure safe poultry-handling practices and biosecurity measures. On both Bali and Lombok, community respondents knew the signs and symptoms of sick birds but did not differentiate well between HPAI and other bird diseases. On both islands, more than 60% of respondents were reluctant to report sudden deaths of poultry. The lack of a government compensation program for destroyed flocks contributed to this unwillingness to report. While the Indonesian government's planning efforts for HPAI are commendable, the plan has not been effective, as it depends on the cooperative actions of people with small rural farms who have not been consulted in the development of the plan, have not been adequately instructed on the nature of the plan, and perceive no benefits to themselves from prevention efforts. Context-appropriate mechanisms for communicating zoonotic risk and options for risk mitigation that do not result in net loss to poor households are also needed.

Avian reflex and electroencephalogram responses in different states of consciousness

Defining states of clinical consciousness in animals is important in veterinary anaesthesia and in studies of euthanasia and welfare assessment at slaughter. The aim of this study was to validate readily observable reflex responses in relation to different conscious states, as confirmed by EEG analysis, in two species of birds under laboratory conditions (35-week-old layer hens (n=12) and 11-week-old turkeys (n=10)). We evaluated clinical reflexes and characterised electroencephalograph (EEG) activity (as a measure of brain function) using spectral analyses in four different clinical states of consciousness: conscious (fully awake), semi-conscious (sedated), unconscious-optimal (general anaesthesia), unconscious-sub optimal (deep hypnotic state), as well as assessment immediately following euthanasia. Jaw or neck muscle tone was the most reliable reflex measure distinguishing between conscious and unconscious states. Pupillary reflex was consistently observed until respiratory arrest. Nictitating membrane reflex persisted for a short time (<1min) after respiratory arrest and brain death (isoelectric EEG). The results confirm that the nictitating membrane reflex is a conservative measure of death in poultry. Using spectral analyses of the EEG waveforms it was possible to readily distinguish between the different states of clinical consciousness. In all cases, when birds progressed from a conscious to unconscious state; total spectral power (PTOT) significantly increased, whereas median (F50) and spectral edge (F95) frequencies significantly decreased. This study demonstrates that EEG analysis can differentiate between clinical states (and loss of brain function at death) in birds and provides a unique integration of reflex responses and EEG activity.

Identifying risk factors of avian infectious diseases at household level in Poyang Lake region, China

Poultry kept in backyard farms are susceptible to acquiring and spreading infectious diseases because of free ranging and poor biosecurity measures. Since some of these diseases are zoonoses, this is also a significant health concern to breeders and their families. Backyard farms are common in rural regions of China. However, there is lack of knowledge of backyard poultry in the country. To obtain first-hand information of backyard poultry and identify risk factors of avian infectious diseases, a cross-sectional study was carried out at household level in rural regions around Poyang Lake.A door-to-door survey was conducted to collect data on husbandry practices, trading practices of backyard farmers, and surrounding environments of backyard farms. Farms were categorized into cases and controls based on their history of poultry death. Data were collected for 137 farms, and the association with occurrence of poultry death event was explored by chi-square tests. Results showed that vaccination implementation was a protective factor (odds ratio OR=0.40, 95% confidence interval CI: 0.20–0.80, p=0.01), while contact with other backyard flocks increased risk (OR=1.72, 95% CI: 0.79–3.74, p=0.16). A concept of “farm connectivity” characterized by the density of particular land-use types in the vicinity of the farm was proposed to characterize the degree of contact between poultry in one household farm and those in other household farms. It was found that housing density in a 20-m buffer zone of the farmhouse was most significantly associated with poultry death occurrence (OR=1.08, 95% CI: 1.02–1.17, p=0.03), and was in agreement with observation of villagers. Binary logistic regression was applied to evaluate the relationship between poultry death event and density of land-use types in all buffer zones. When integrated with vaccination implementation for poultry, prediction accuracy of poultry death event reached 72.0%.Results combining questionnaire survey with geographical approaches indicated that occurrence of poultry death event among backyard farms within a village was heavily impacted by farm connectivity. This study provides new insight for the study and help to develop more targeted prevention and countermeasure in a typical rural environment of China.

Risk Factors for Infectious Diseases in Backyard Poultry Farms in the Poyang Lake Area, China

Emergence and transmission of infectious diseases have an enormous impact on the poultry industry and present a serious threat to the health of humans and wild birds. Noncommercial poultry operations, such as backyard poultry facilities in China, are potential sources of virus exchange between commercial poultry and wild birds. It is particularly critical in wetland areas where backyard poultry have close contact with commercial poultry and migratory birds, therefore increasing the risk of contracting infectious diseases. To evaluate the transmission risks, a cross-sectional study was undertaken in the Poyang Lake area, China, involving 309 residents in the backyard poultry farms in three counties (Region A, B, and C) of Jiangxi Province. We examined the backyard poultry population, poultry species, presence of poultry deaths from infectious diseases, food sources, and biosecurity practices. Region B ranked highest for biosecurity while region C ranked lowest. The risks of infectious diseases were assessed by adjusted odds ratio based on multivariate logistic regression analysis. Potential risk factors in the three regions of the study site were compared. In Region A, significant factor was contact of poultry with wild birds (OR: 6.573, 95% CI: 2.148–20.115, P=0.001). In Region B, the most significant factor was contact of poultry with neighboring backyard waterfowls (OR: 3.967, 95% CI: 1.555–10.122, P=0.004). In Region C, significant factors were poultry purchase from local live bird markets (OR: 3.740, 95% CI: 1.243–11.255, P=0.019), and contact of poultry with wild birds (OR: 3.379, 95% CI: 1.058–10.791, P=0.040). In summary, backyard poultry was significantly affected by neighboring commercial poultry and close contact with wild birds. The results are expected to improve our understanding of the transmission risks of infectious diseases in a typical backyard poultry environment in rural China, and address the need to improve local farming practices and take preventive measures.

Wildlife predation on livestock and poultry: implications for predator conservation in the rainforest of south-east Mexico

AbstractWe assessed wildlife predation on livestock and poultry and the implications for predator conservation in the most important rainforest areas of south-east Mexico. We estimated the economic impact of predation and identified variables correlated to predation frequency in four communities adjacent to Calakmul and Montes Azules Biosphere Reserves. We did participant observation and interviews with 161 residents during January–September 2010. We recorded 2,861 deaths of livestock and poultry from predation by wild carnivores over the previous 3 years. Opossums (n = 677 predation events), raptors (n = 676) and ocelots (n = 539) were responsible for the highest numbers of killings. Poultry constituted the main target of wild predators (n = 2,548 deaths). Sheep (n = 201 events) and cattle (167) were the most affected by large predators such as jaguarPanthera oncaand pumaPuma concolor. Economic losses from predation were estimated to be USD 55,600 over the 3 years in the four communities. Predation frequency was positively correlated with livestock numbers (r2 = 0.87, P &lt; 0.05) but negatively associated with wild prey abundance (r2 = 0.96, P &lt; 0.05). Better husbandry practices focused on the safety and location of livestock enclosures and on reducing overabundance of dogs and regulating hunting on wild prey in rural areas may help mitigating conflict between wild predators and residents in the rainforests of south-east Mexico.

Local poultry biosecurity risks to highly pathogenic avian influenza in Kaduna State, Nigeria

The study appraised local poultry biosecurity risks to highly pathogenic avian influenza by assessing farmers' knowledge, beliefs and poultry practices using a standard questionnaire. Farmers' knowledge on transmission and prevention was high but low on disease recognition. Radio was ineffective at informing Islamic educated farmers. Extensive knowledge on transmission and protection did not result in behavioural change as farmers engaged in risky practices of selling, eating or medicating infected poultry and not reporting poultry death. Islamic educated farmers do not believe highly pathogenic avian influenza is a serious and preventable disease. Women are more likely to self medicate when experiencing influenza-like illness. Audio-visual aids would improve avian influenza recognition while involvement of community leaders would enhance disease reporting. Outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in local poultry in Nigeria would follow a similar pattern in Southeast Asia if the risk perception among farmers is not urgently articulated.