De La Encina Research Articles

Testing the Efficacy of Indirect Methods on Characterization of Sedimentary Basins by Correlation of Direct Data and Geophysical Techniques

The information obtained from direct data (geological mapping and boreholes) and indirect techniques (reflection seismology, time-domain electromagnetics and magnetometry) is combined to analyse the northern limit of the Bailén basin (southeastern Spain). This Triassic–Neogene basin is confined by a graben-type structure, limited by two normal faults in the SW–NE direction (the Baños de la Encina-La Carolina fault and Guarromán fault). The movement of these faults was complex, with different pulses occurring over time. Therefore, the subsidence of the basin and the sedimentary filling of the graben were different, giving rise to lateral changes in the facies and thicknesses. This study focuses on the Baños de la Encina fault, chosen as the experimental site to analyse the effectiveness and accuracy of these geophysical techniques to reveal the basement structure and geometry. Seismic reflection allows to detect two faults that caused the subsidence of the eastern sector of the graben. The TDEM method made it possible to calculate the depth of the Palaeozoic basement, as well as reveal the presence of the two aforementioned faults. Magnetic total field data highlight variations in the basement depth that can be used to infer previously unknown fractures, in this case, in the NW–SE direction.

Vicente Alanís, un pintor sevillano en la Baja Extremadura. Revisión a su catálogo de obras.

Vicente Alanís was the Sevillian painter who most openly derived from late baroque aesthetics into the most typical academicism advocated by the Royal School of the Three Noble Arts, a board in which he held several positions and in which his professional career ended. In 1795 he executed the painting Animas in the parish of Santa María de la Encina and San Juan Bautista, in the town of Burguillos del Cerro, Badajoz. The canvas testifies the aroma of historical thought in a place other than a heart of power at the end of the Old Regime, and shows the importance of the of art ideas and influence trafficking. As a result of this discovery, I have been able to add some other works to his oeuvre.

Animals as a remarkable source of raw material: Osseous artifacts manufacture in 2nd millennium BC Southern Iberia

Animals have played a basic role within human groups since the origins of humankind, being used as a source of very different elements, such as meat, milk, wool or bone. The aim of this paper is to approach the importance of animals as a source of hard raw material in human technology during the 2nd millennium BC. Our main goal is to spotlight the careful selection of the bones to manufacture specific items, focusing on the ancient beliefs and myths that human groups might have had towards some animal species and how they could have influenced that choice. Thus, an assemblage of 830 items from four archaeological sites located in the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula: Motilla del Azuer (Ciudad Real), Motilla de las Cañas (Ciudad Real), Peñalosa (Jaén) and Cerro de la Encina (Granada). The discussion involves aspects such as the use of especial raw materials, labor investment, use-wear patterns, as well as curation and maintenance. Thus, it can be pointed out the presence of certain manufacturing traditions for some type of objects whose morphology has remained almost unaltered since the Chalcolithic.

MRS, µEDXRF and FTIR-ATR analysis of white paste inlays in Bronze Age pottery from the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula: The case of Peñalosa (Jaén, Spain)

The objective of this paper is to characterise the composition and manufacturing techniques of the white paste inlays in the Bronze Age pottery decorations on the eastern Iberian Peninsula, using as a case study the Argaric archaeological site of Peñalosa (Baños de la Encina, Jaén, Spain). The determination of the characteristics and manufacture of these pastes required the application of analytical techniques such as micro-Raman spectroscopy (MRS), micro X-ray fluorescence (µEDXRF) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR), as well as reference materials. This methodology made it possible to distinguish two types of production in this enclave: one with bone and the other with kaolinite. The coexistence of different manufacturing techniques had already been corroborated in other Bronze Age contexts in Europe and the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. We were also able to determine that, in the case of paste made with bone, the temperatures would have reached 800°C, making it possible to link the use of calcined deer antlers with the manufacture of these decorations.

POTTERY GRAVE GOODS FROM FUNERARY CONTEXTS AT THE ARGARIC SITE OF PEÑALOSA (JAÉN). A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

The need for interdisciplinary studies is the basis of ambitious research (ARCHEM Project) that is carried out in the argaric settlement of Peñalosa (Baños de la Encina, Jaén), combining organic residues analysis and techno-typological studies of pottery found in funerary contexts. Manufacture and use of pottery could inform us about customs and traditions that remain hidden in time and in the archaeological record. Knowing the implications and decisions of potters as well as the functionality of those vessels deposited inside the graves can approach the idiosyncrasy of a society in the Bronze Age in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula. The methodology used to identify patterns of functionality is highlighted by the combination of cutting-edge analysis techniques in both fields such as the application of different chromatographic techniques (GC-MS, UPLC-HRMS and GC-C-IRMS) that allow to identify the organic compounds in the ceramics and the application of analytical techniques from Earth Sciences (Stereomicroscopic, X-Ray Diffraction and Petrography), which allow us to characterize ceramic pastes and knowing the catchment of raw materials. This study highlights the Peñalosa site as a melting pot of new research and it brings us closer with the use of a complex methodology combined to the societies 4000 years ago.

Redefining the role of metal production during the Bronze Age of south-eastern Iberia. The mines of eastern Sierra Morena

Researchers have traditionally paid little attention to mining by Bronze Age communities in the south-east of the Iberian Peninsula. This has changed recently due to the identification of new mineral exploitations from this period during the archaeo-mining surveys carried out in the Rumblar and Jándula valleys in the Sierra Morena Mountains between 2009-2014, as well as the excavation of the José Martín Palacios mine (Baños de la Encina, Jaén). The analysis of the archaeological evidence and the archaeometric results reveal the importance of mining and metallurgical activities undertaken by the communities that inhabited the region between 2200 and 900 cal. BC, when it became one of the most important copper and silver production centers during the Late Prehistory of south-eastern Iberia.

Redefining the role of metal production during the Bronze Age of south-eastern Iberia. The mines of eastern Sierra Morena

Researchers have traditionally paid little attention to mining by Bronze Age communities in the south-east of the Iberian Peninsula. This has changed recently due to the identification of new mineral exploitations from this period during the archaeo-mining surveys carried out in the Rumblar and Jándula valleys in the Sierra Morena Mountains between 2009-2014, as well as the excavation of the José Martín Palacios mine (Baños de la Encina, Jaén). The analysis of the archaeological evidence and the archaeometric results reveal the importance of mining and metallurgical activities undertaken by the communities that inhabited the region between 2200 and 900 cal. BC, when it became one of the most important copper and silver production centers during the Late Prehistory of south-eastern Iberia.

Reporting atmospheric CO2 pressure corrected results of stable carbon isotope analyses of cereals remains from the archaeological site of Peñalosa (SE Iberian Peninsula): agricultural and social implications

The practice of agriculture across the Mediterranean basin has had significant social and economic consequences, including the development of social inequalities. To inform on plant water status and thus on agricultural management techniques and environmental conditions during the first half of the second millennium BCE, we measured stable carbon isotopes in a set of 280 seeds of Hordeum vulgare L. and Pisum sativum from the archaeological site of Penalosa (Banos de la Encina, southern Iberian Peninsula). The ranges in stable carbon isotope values for archaeological samples were wider than those observed for modern reference samples collected in 2014 and 2015, suggesting that archaeological samples experienced more varied water status conditions. This variability was associated with the location of the seeds within the site and could be a consequence of the cultivation of different plots and/or from temporal variations in local environmental conditions. For absolute comparisons of water status between modern and past samples, we introduced a novel correction to account for temporal changes in the concentration of atmospheric CO2 in addition to the usual adjustment that accounts for the variability in atmospheric CO2 stable carbon isotope values. This comparison showed that past samples had greater water availability than modern references, and thus, irrigation or intentional selection of naturally irrigated soils was practiced at the site.

Un arma no solo de prestigio: la espada argárica de Peñalosa (Baños de la Encina, Jaén)

The sword found in a house at the Bronze Age settlement of Penalosa (Banos de la Encina, province of Jaen) is the only example from a domestic context in the El Argar culture. We analize the circumstances of the discovery, and discuss the results of the various analyses that have been performed. Finally, we compare the Penalosa find to other contemporaneous swords from the Iberian Peninsula and discuss whether the role of Argaric weapons was symbolic or functional.

La mina de José Martín Palacios-Doña Eva (Baños de la Encina, Jaén): la primera explotación minera de la Edad del Bronce documentada en el sureste de la Península Ibérica

This paper presents the results obtained from the archaeological intervention carried out in the ancient mine of Dona Eva/Jose Martin Palacios (Banos de la Encina, Jaen). This excavation has allowed us to confirm the hypothesis formulated after the initial campaign, that the mine was exploited in two different phases, the first one during the Bronze Age and the second one in Roman times. This is the first mine in the Southeast of the Iberian Peninsula that has been convincingly assigned to the Bronze Age based both on the recovered ceramic material as well as Carbon 14 results. In addition, we have also found traces of the reduction process (slag, smelting crucibles). These have only been documented at three mines in the Iberian Peninsula.

An insight into the organisation of metal production in the Argaric society

Metallurgy is a common topic when discussing Early Bronze Age societies, as its social impact has been traditionally used to support the appearance of social inequality. Different models have been proposed for the Bronze Age Argaric society of SE Iberia. One includes a highly centralised hierarchical production system, and the other consists of decentralised production at a local scale.Though metallurgical debris has been found in more than 30 sites in the Argaric society, and despite metallurgy being a core subject of discussion, very little research has been conducted on these finds. In this article, we draw from provenance studies using lead isotope analysis to gain a better understanding of the organisation of metal production and distribution.We present new MC-ICP-MS lead isotope and SC-ICP-MS trace element analyses of 23 arsenical copper and bronze objects from two Argaric sites: Cerro de la Encina and Cerro San Cristóbal. Both sites are located in the Granada basin. These results, contextualised with metallurgical evidence already published, allow us to depict a decentralised system of metal production in which different and distantly located copper mines were being exploited.

Poblamiento ibérico y romano en Sierra Morena oriental: El Castillo de Burgalimar (Baños de la Encina, Jaén)

The main objective of this paper is to present a first analysis of the archaeological remains of the Iberian –Middle and Late Iberian– and Roman –High imperial period– phases documented during the archaeological excavation that took place between 2007 and 2008 in the medieval castle of Burgalimar (Banos de la Encina, Jaen). These are the only remains documented within the mining area of the Rumblar –Eastern Sierra Morena– that belong to the Pre-roman period, where, on the other hand, a strong occupancy has been documented earlier, during the Bronze Age, and later, during the Roman period. Therefore, this study is important for proposing the first hypothesis about the function and type of this settlement, as well as for understanding, from a diachronic point of view, the urban development of this region, which is linked to the largest oppida in the Upper Guadalquivir Valley –Castulo, Isturgi or Cantigi–.

Approach to disability in a population from the Argar Culture

A new research field is being developed on disability in Archaeology and Physical Anthropology, which is investigated in this article in the context of the Argaric Culture. More than 200 skeletons, coming from sites in Granada province (Castellon Alto, Fuente Amarga, Cuesta del Negro, Terrera del Reloj and Cerro de la Encina), were studied, finding four with signs of physical impairment: one male and one female who must both have used a walking aid, and two males with shoulder dislocations. All four individuals were buried according to Argaric Culture rituals, beneath their dwellings, indicating that they were not socially rejected. Nevertheless, further insight into disability in this culture is hampered by the limited biological and archaeological data available.

Cuerpos de mujeres: la construcción de la identidad y su manifestación durante la Edad del Bronce

The so-called “Archaeology of the body” has shown the relevance of the study of the body as a site of lived experiences. In this sense, it has aligned with the phenomenology and with feminist theory. Our main goal in this text is the analysis of women’s bodies buried in the archaeological site of Cerro de la Encina (Monachil, Granada) in order to understand how they experiences the world through their lives.

WEALTH AND POWER IN THE BRONZE AGE OF THE SOUTH‐EAST OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA: THE FUNERARY RECORD OF CERRO DE LA ENCINA

Summary. As a result of recent fieldwork undertaken at the archaeological site of Cerro de la Encina, our knowledge of the funerary ritual has increased considerably. The funerary record shows a significant concentration of wealth in burials corresponding to the family groups of the highest social status. Dramatic social differences can also be found in the internal organization of the settlement. The locations of burials within the settlement area, under the floors of dwellings, allow us to establish that the settlement space was closely related to the social identity of the families. The high number of burials with double and triple inhumations, in contrast to other Argaric necropolis, also stands out as an important feature of Cerro de la Encina, suggesting that familial relationships seem to be more marked here than at other Argaric sites. All these data are discussed in relation to the funerary ritual of the Argaric Culture.

Intervenciones arqueológicas en el yacimiento de la Edad del Bronce del Cerro de la Encina (Monachil, Granada)

New archaeological fieldwork has been carried out from November 2003 to May 2004 in the Bronze Age site of Cerro de la Encina, due to the interest of the regional government of Andalusia in displaying the settlement for visitors. The aim of this fieldwork has been the systematic excavation of a large settlement area partially known thanks to the excavations developed at the beginning of 1980s. A first toccupation period belonging to the Argaric Culture has been documented, highlighting specially the funerary ritual characterized by individual inhumations located below dwellings. After a gap in the occupation of the settlement a new social group belonging to the Late Bronze Age Culture of Southeast of Spain inhabits the Cerro de la Encina.

Enterramientos y diferenciacion social I. El registro funerario del yacimiento de la Edad del Bronce de Peñalosa (Baños de la Encina, Jaén)

The results of the analysis of the funerary record and its relation to the spatial organization of the Bronze Age settlement of Penalosa (Banos de la Encina, Jaen) are presented in this paper. Differences between habitation units have been related to differences in tomb location under the houses, in grave goods and in the anthropological characteristics of the human beings buried there.

The B-chromosomes of Locusta migratoria I. Detection of negative correlation between mean chiasma frequency and the rate of accumulation of the B's; a reanalysis of the available data about the transmission of these B-chromosomes

B-chromosomes were studied in two Spanish populations of Locusta migratoria. Both exhibit a high frequency of B-carrying individuals (75% and 94%). In both the B-chromosomes are mitotically unstable and they accumulate in the male germ line. The mean rate of accumulation is 28.5% in Banos de la Encina and 31.9% in Carboneras. There are no significant differences in mean cell chiasma frequency and between-cell variance of chiasmata between follicles with different number of B's within individual males. Likewise, there are no significant differences in mean cell chiasma frequency and between-cell variance between males with and without supernumeraries. However, a significant negative correlation exists between mean chiasma frequency and the rate of accumulation.

Irving's Use of Spanish Sources in the Conquest of Granada

T HERE are conflicting opinions concerning the value of The Conquest of Granada as history. By comparing all available sources with this work, I have attempted to determine how much truth and how much whimsy Irving has put into it. The authenticity of the facts given in The Conquest of Granada has been checked by comparison with La Historia de Espania, the thirty-volume work of Modesto Lafuente, who was writing while Irving was in Spain and who used the very sources to which Irving had access. Lafuente's work is accepted as a standard history of the country. By placing side by side excerpts from The Conquest of Granada and from the historical writings of Luis de MIrmol Carvajal, Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, Gin's P&rez de Hita, and the ballads of several compilers, among them Juan de Timoneda, Juan de la Encina, Laso de la Vega, Alonso de Fuentes, and Gines Perez de Hita, I shall show that the episodes used by Irving are found in their entirety in the pages of his sources. In a letter written on September 2, 1829, to his brother Peter, Irving explains in this way his purpose in writing the book: