Days In Brine Research Articles

Quasi-waffle solar distiller for durable desalination of seawater.

Water purification via interfacial solar steam generation exhibits promising potential. However, salt crystallization on evaporators reduces solar absorption and obstructs water supply. To address it, a waffle-shaped solar evaporator (WSE) has been designed. WSE is fabricated via a zinc-assisted pyrolysis route, combining low-cost biomass carbon sources, recyclable zinc, and die-stamping process. This route enables cost-effective production without the need of sophisticated processing. As compared to conventional plane-shaped evaporators, WSE is featured by extra sidewalls for triggering the convection with the synergistic solute and thermal Marangoni effects. Consequently, WSE achieves spontaneous salt rejection and durable evaporation stability. It has demonstrated continuous operation for more than 60 days in brine without fouling.

Development, evaluation and stability mechanism of high-strength gels in high-temperature and high-salinity reservoirs

The high-temperature and high-salinity environment of the reservoir present a challenge for developing high-strength gels. In this study, a combination of acrylamide/2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid (AM/AMPS) and partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) was crosslinked with hydroquinone (HQ) and hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA) to prepare high-strength gels suitable for high-temperature and high-salinity reservoirs. The evaluation demonstrated that the gels exhibited exceptional strength, with a storage modulus exceeding 40 Pa. Gels containing more than 0.2 % crosslinker remained stable for over 120 days in brine with a salinity of 22 × 104 mg/L at 130 °C. Core flooding experimental evaluation revealed that the gel exhibited excellent plugging ability in fractures. Mechanisms of gel hardening and long-term stability in high-temperature and high-salinity environments were investigated by rheological testing, cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. Results suggest that chelation between carboxylate groups in the gel and bivalent cations like calcium or magnesium increases mesh density, leading to hardening of the gel; aging also contributes to maintaining its strength while limiting syneresis due to AMPS presence and high mesh density, thus ensuring stability in extreme environments. The findings, although limited to laboratory-scale conditions and subject to potential variations in real time applications, still serve as a proof of concept for guiding the formulation of high-strength gels in reservoirs under extreme conditions.

Synthesis and Properties of a Photocurable Coating Based on Waste Cooking Oil

In order to provide a cost-effective solution for photocurable coatings and introduce a novel approach for utilizing waste cooking oil (WCO), a type of photocurable resin based on WCO was synthesized. This WCO-based coating incorporated epoxy waste oil methacrylate (EWOMA) derived from WCO and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) as a second monomer. It allowed for easy application and rapid curing when exposed to 405 nm purple light. The cured coating, with an optimized composition of EWOMA: HEMA = 4:1 in mass ratio, exhibited favorable mechanical properties (tensile strength: 9.3 MPa, elongation at break: 38.1%) and demonstrated good coating film performance. The coating film exhibited good adhesion (grade 2), high pencil hardness (2H), excellent impact strength (62 kg·cm−1) and low aldehyde content (0.34 μg·g−1). Moreover, it showcased excellent antismudge properties, with a low percentage of water-based ink residual (6.8%), which could be effortlessly and completely removed by wiping. Additionally, the WCO-based coating demonstrated impressive anticorrosive properties, as evidenced by the intact coating film on the tinplate that remained corrosion-free for over 20 days in brine. This cost-effective WCO-based coating offers a viable alternative to commercial photocurable coatings.

Hydrothermal Stability and Transport Properties of Optically Detectable Advanced Tracers With Carbonate Rocks in the Presence of Oil

Summary The use of tracer technology to illuminate reservoir characteristics such as well connectivity, volumetric sweep efficiency, and geological heterogeneity for the purpose of improving history-matching fidelity and enriching production optimization algorithms has gained momentum over the last decade. Herein, we report the stringent laboratory qualification of a novel class of fluorescent molecules, optically detectable down to ultratrace levels (<ppb) in produced water, as competent crosswell water tracers for use in highly retentive carbonate reservoirs with harsh salinity and temperature requirements. Tracer molecules, with state-of-the-art fluorobenzoic acids (FBAs) as a benchmark, exhibiting requisite hydrothermal stability and nonretentive behavior in simulated reservoir conditions coreflood tests are scheduled to be field-trialed. Our novel fluorescent tracer material systems, based on dipicolinic acid (DPA) and naphthalene sulfonates, rely on time-resolved luminescence and/or advanced chromatographic separation to eliminate the interfering fluorescent background issue in produced water for near real-time analysis. We systematically evaluated the novel tracer molecules at 95°C in high-salinity injection brine over 4 months, with periodic sampling and analysis by liquid chromatography to ascertain their hydrothermal stability. Coreflood tests at reservoir conditions were conducted to determine their interactions with carbonate rock surfaces with and without residual crude oil. All qualification tests were performed using a reference water tracer 2-FBA and/or a model partitioning tracer 4-chlorobenzyl alcohol as benchmark. Finally, reservoir simulations were performed to study both nonpartitioning and partitioning tracer transports in realistic field conditions. Hydrothermal stability tests indicated that our novel tracers are stable for 132 days in brine under reservoir conditions. Coreflood tests without residual oil revealed that the novel fluorescent tracer materials, such as FBAs, exhibit negligible retention in carbonate rocks (almost 100% recovery of the tracers). Coreflood experiments with residual oil suggested that all tracer materials, including the FBAs, possibly reversibly interact with the rocks, resulting in lower tracer materials recovery. While the overall retention of tracer materials is minimal in the presence of residual oil, these values were found to be relatively higher to that measured without residual oil. We observed no significant change in core permeability due to tracer injection. Field-scale reservoir simulation sensitivity studies in companion with coreflood experiments indicated minimum interferences for consecutive tracer injections in the field trial settings. We believe this is the first time such direct comparative study has been performed in the existing research to evaluate the interaction of both water and partitioning tracers in carbonate rocks at reservoir conditions with and without the presence of residual crude oil. Reducing the burden of analysis is critical in the implementation of this technology to obtain high-fidelity tracer data that can be used to improve waterflood optimization, increasing hydrocarbon recovery by a few percent per well without using additional resources for drilling or production. The ability to use presently commercialized tracer technologies, such as FBA-based molecules, in conjunction with this novel optically detectable fluorescent tracer platform will be a force multiplier to enable large tracer campaigns that provide high-fidelity tracer data for a production optimization algorithm.

Fermentation of cv. Kalamata Natural Black Olives with Potential Multifunctional Yeast Starters.

The purpose of this study was to explore the inoculated fermentation of cv. Kalamata natural black olives using selected strains of yeast cultures with multifunctional potential. For this purpose, five yeast starters belonging to Candida boidinii (four starters) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (one starter), previously isolated from table olive fermentation of the same variety and screened for their technological characteristics and probiotic potential, were inoculated in brines at the beginning of fermentation. Microbial populations (lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and Enterobacteriaceae), pH, titratable acidity, organic acids, and ethanol were monitored during fermentation for a period of 5 months. At the same time, the survival of each starter was assessed by culture-dependent molecular identification at the beginning (0 days), middle (75 days), and final stages (150 days) of fermentation in the brines and olives (at the end of the process only). The results revealed the coexistence of yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) throughout fermentation in most processes and also the absence of Enterobacteriaceae after the first 20 days of brining. The population of yeasts remained 2 log cycles below LAB counts, except for in the inoculated treatment with C. boidinii Y28, where the yeast starter prevailed from day 60 until the end of the fermentation, as well as in the inoculated treatment with C. boidinii Y30, where no LAB could be detected in the brines after 38 days. At the end of the process, LAB ranged between 4.6 and 6.8 log10 CFU/mL, while yeasts were close to 5.0 log10 CFU/mL, except for the inoculated fermentation with C. boidinii Y27 and spontaneous fermentation (control), in which the yeast counts were close to 3.5 log10 CFU/mL. At the end of fermentation, the recovery percentage of C. boidinii Y27 was 50% in the brines and 45% in the olives. C. boidinii Y28 and S. cerevisiae Y34 could be recovered at 25% and 5% in the brine, respectively, whereas neither starter could be detected in the olives. For C. boidinii Y30, the recovery percentage was 25% in the brine and 10% in the olives. Finally, C. boidinii Y31 could not be detected in the brines and survived at a low percentage (10%) in the olives.

Industrial Processing of Algerian Table Olive Cultivars Elaborated as Spanish Style.

Olives from the Sigoise, Verdale, and Sevillana cultivars were elaborated as Spanish-style table olives by four Algerian factories, and the quality and food safety of the industrial table olives have been studied by the analysis of physicochemical and microbiological parameters. Differences were observed between the treatments carried out by the different factories throughout the manufacturing process, especially during the washing stage, but no significant differences were found between the analyzed samples for the concentration of sugars and polyphenols. The final pH values reached at the end of fermentation ranged between 5.04 and 4.27, and the titratable acidity was above 0.4% for all samples. Lactic and acetic acids were produced in mean concentrations of 0.68% and 0.21% as a result of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast metabolism, respectively. However, the presence of butyric, isobutyric, and propionic acids was also detected, and was related to the growth of undesirable spoilage microorganisms, responsible for secondary fermentations. The high-throughput sequencing of bacterial DNA suggested the dominance of LAB species belonging to genera Lactiplantibacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Oenococcus, or Enterococcus. The Enterobacteriaceae family was detected during the first days of brining and in only one sample after 120 days of fermentation. Other spoilage microorganisms were found, such as Lentilactobacillus buchneri or the Pectinatus and Acetobacter genera, capable of consuming lactic acid and these played an essential role in the onset of spoilage. The Clostridium and Enterobacter genera, producers of butyric and propionic acids, were responsible for the malodorous fermentation present in the industrial samples that were analyzed. The study concluded that the safety of the table olives analyzed was compromised by the presence of undesirable microorganisms and microbial stability was not guaranteed. The elaboration process can be improved by reducing the washing steps and the time should be reduced to avoid the loss of fermentable matter, with the goal of reaching a pH < 4.0 after the fermentation and preventing the possibility of the growth of spoilage microorganisms and foodborne pathogens.

Chemical parameters and antioxidant activity of turning color natural-style table olives of the Sigoise cultivar

A chemical characterization of turning color table olives of the Sigoise variety was made through their processing as natural-style. Polyphenols, sugars, tocopherols, fatty acids, and antioxidant activity in the olives were monitored throughout the elaboration process. Oleuropein, salidroside, hydroxytyrosol 4-glucoside, rutin, ligustroside and verbascoside showed a decrease of 16.90-83.34%, while hydroxytyrosol increased during the first months of brining. Glucose was consumed by 90% due to the metabolism of the fermentative microbiota. The tocopherol content remained stable during the process and only the α-tocopherol decreased. The fatty acids were not affected. The loss in antioxidant compounds resulted in a decrease in the percentage of DPPH radical inhibition from 75.91% in the raw fruit to 44.20% after 150 days of brining. Therefore, the turning color natural table olives of the Sigoise variety are a good source of bioactive compounds.

Migration and plugging characteristics of polymer microsphere and EOR potential in produced-water reinjection of offshore heavy oil reservoirs

Due to the strong heterogeneity, the infaust mobility ratio of offshore heavy oil reservoirs and the high cost of produced water treatment, a “green” in-depth profile control technology was proposed, which integrated produced water reinjection and microsphere in-depth profile control and displacement technology. Experimental results show that RGO-PMSs maintained to be spherical and expanded 5.2–6 time after aging 15 days in brine. While the size of RGO-PMSs aggregation increased 15–25 times, which induced the enhancement of plugging efficiency when permeability was higher than 3000 mD. During RGO-PMSs migration in porous media, it could adjust profile by adsorbing on rock surface or forming plugging in the forms of single capture, bridging, and accumulation. Due to the elastic deformation ability of RGO-PMSs, the particles could enter in-depth reservoirs to form plugging and modulate profile. Moreover, RGO-PMSs system injection and subsequent water flooding could enhance the oil recovery in high permeability layer and low permeability layer of 31.3% and 73.5%, respectively in parallels core displacement experiments. It is believed that the proposed produced water injection combined with RGO-PMSs could be a potential “green” candidate for enhancing oil recovery in offshore heavy oil reservoirs.

Proposal for technological adaptation of small-sized green olives to Spanish-STYLE processing

In this study, small-sized green olives were assessed for processing as Spanish-style table olives. Technological adaptations included the selection of three lye treatments, combined with a 3 h washing, a subsequent fermentation for 105 days in brine (12% NaCl (w/v) acidified with hydrochloric acid, 2.3 mL/L of brine) using a starter culture (OleicaStarter®) and preservation for 7 months in the fermentation brine fortified with NaCl up to 9%. Different physicochemical (pH, titratable, combined acidity, sodium chloride, sugars, fermentable matter, colour and firmness of fruits), and microbiological (yeasts, lactic acid bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae) and parameters were monitored during processing of the olives. The results showed that lye treatment with 3.4% sodium hydroxide was the most suitable treatment since it presented the highest values of titratable acidity. At the end of fermentation, all treatments presented physicochemical and microbiological parameters compatible with the production of Spanish-style table olives. Likewise, high levels of lactic acid bacteria present on the fruit epidermis could make these olives suitable as carriers of functional bacteria after ingestion (6.8–6.9 log CFU/g). Finally, preservation can maintain the stability and quality of table olives. All the results highlight that small-sized green olives can be successfully processed as Spanish-style table olives.

Core-Shell Nanohydrogels with Programmable Swelling for Conformance Control in Porous Media.

Conformance control during waterflooding in an oil reservoir is utilized to redistribute water and increase the sweep efficiency and hence oil production. Using preformed gel particles can effectively redirect the flow by blocking the high-permeability zones and forcing water into low-permeability zones where the oil is trapped. However, the size of such gel particles can limit their applications deeper within the reservoir and can result in shear-induced degradation near the well bore. Here, we fabricate core-shell nanohydrogels with delayed swelling behavior; their volume increases by a factor of 200 after about 30 days in brine under reservoir conditions. We study their effect on the flow behavior in a three-dimensional porous medium micromodel consisting of randomly packed glass beads. Using confocal microscopy, we directly visualize the spatial variations of flow in the micromodel before and after nanohydrogel injection and swelling. The swollen nanohydrogels block some pores reducing the permeability of the micromodel and diverting the water into low-permeability regions. A core flood experiment further confirms that the nanohydrogels can significantly reduce the permeability of a reservoir sample and divert the fluid flow. Our results demonstrate that these core-shell nanohydrogels might be useful for flow control in porous media and can be used as a conformance control agent.

Qualitative evaluation of fermented olives grown in Southern Italy (cvs. Carolea, Grossa of Gerace and Nocellara Messinese)

The aim of this work was to evaluate the quality of olives of three typical cultivars of Southern Italy and correspondent brines after different fermentation variables: two NaCl concentrations with and without acidification up to pH 4). In particular, physicochemical parameters, microbiological counts and antioxidant activity of olive samples and brines were monitored and compared. The obtained results showed a good fermentation performance of studied olive cultivars , with a brine pH inside the legal limit of 4.3, also in samples were the pH correction was not performed. The pH lowering was slower in brine samples treated with the lowest salt concentration. Moreover, all samples manifested higher antioxidant activity after 240 days of brining, and total phenol content ranged from 9.22 to 20.78 g gallic acid kg-1 in olives. Among samples, Carolea olives showed the highest total phenolic content and the highest antioxidant activity after 240 days of fermentation.

Extending the Shelf Life of Camembert Cheese via Controlling Over-Ripening by Bacteriocin of Newly Lactic Acid Bacterial Isolate LAB100

Camembert cheese is a surface white mould ripened cheese; when full ripe the casein becomes liquefy as the intensive degradation occurs by proteinases from surface flora and results over-ripening and off flavor. To control this, partial purified bacteriocin like substances (PPBLS) from newly lactic acid bacterial isolate (LAB100) exhibited antifungal activity against Penicillium candidum (in vitro) were used. Inhibition (%) of P. candidum by PPBLS at concentrations of 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 mg/ml was 34, 50, 79, 80 and 85%, respectively. Based on their superior antifungal potential activity; isolate LAB100 was phenotypically and genotypically characterized as newly Lactobacillus sp. For delaying the Camembert cheese over-ripening (in vivo), bacteriocin producing isolate LAB100 and its PPBLS were incorporated and applied in different camembert cheese treatments. Three treatments beside control were conducted; after brining all cheese treatments stored at 12±2°C to ripen for 12 days and then at 5±2°C for more 30 days to complete ripening. Organoleptic properties, pH values and nitrogen distribution were determined during ripening period. In addition, the proteolysis of treated Camembert cheese was monitored by gel electrophoresis. The cheese treatment (T2) made with bacteriocin producer isolate LAB 100 added as co-culture to main starter recorded the highest total score, followed by T3 and the lowest one was recorded for control (T1). The highest WSN/TN% was in T1; 5.4, 22.87, 34.41 and 57.65% at 3, 10, 20, and 40 days after brining, respectively, while the lowest WSN/TN% was recorded for treatment that made with both bacteriocin producer strain LAB100 and sprayed by PPBLS solution after 3 days of brining (T3), where it was 5.05, 9.85, 13.82, and 31.74% at the same previous ages, respectively. These results were confirmed by gel electrophoresis, indicating that bacteriocin producer LAB100 and or its bacteriocin controlled the protein degradation. These results suggest that both bacteriocin producer strain and its PPBLS minimize the growth of P. candidum as a consequence the rate of proteolysis was controlled and hence extending the shelf life of Camembert cheese is occurred.

Genome-wide association study for ham weight loss at first salting in Italian Large White pigs: towards the genetic dissection of a key trait for dry-cured ham production.

Protected designation of origin dry-cured hams are the most important productions of the Italian heavy pig industry. Hams capable of minimal seasoning losses produce better quality dry-cured hams. Ham weight loss during the first 7days in brine (first salting) is highly correlated with the total loss of weight up to the end of seasoning, and it has quite high heritability (0.30-0.61). For these reasons, ham weight loss at first salting has been included as a meat quality trait in the Italian heavy pig selection program. In this work, we carried out a genome-wide association study for this parameter in the Italian Large White pig breed by genotyping 1365 animals with the Illumina BeadChip PorcineSNP60 chip. Atotal of 44 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) had a Pnominal value below 5.0E-04, five of which were below 5.0E-05 and one of them (ALGA0057985 on chromosome 10) was associated with this trait at a PBonferroni threshold of 0.10. These SNPs identified a total of at least 29 putative QTLs that were located on most porcine autosomal chromosomes. This study provides genomic information that could be useful in dissecting this complex trait by identifying potential candidate genes whose function could contribute to understanding the biological mechanisms affecting meat quality for seasoning aptitude.

Texture and antioxidant evolution of naturally green table olives as affected by different sodium chloride brine concentrations

The results on the evolution of the texture and antioxidant activity during the processing of naturally fermented green olives are reported in the present study. The olives were brined with two different NaCl concentrations, 4 and 7%. A puncture test and a texture profile analysis (TPA) test were carried out to evaluate texture, while the antioxidant activity was assessed in consideration of the loss of absorbance of a stable radical upon reaction with a polyphenolic olive extract. The puncture test revealed both an increase and decrease in peel and flesh hardness, respectively. The olives processed with 7% NaCl concentration showed higher peel hardness than olives brined with 4% salt. The texture profile analysis did not reveal any difference between the two salt concentrations used, but showed a decrease in the value of all parameters after 30 days of brining. The antioxidant activity of the polyphenolic extract decreased significantly during processing, with a major loss after the first 30 days of processing and was higher in the 7% brined olives, than the sample treated with 4% NaCl.

Effects of partial substitution of caprine for ovine milk on the volatile compounds of fresh and mature Urfa cheeses

Fresh Urfa cheeses were produced from ovine and caprine milk mixed in ratios of 100:0; 90:10; 80:20; 70:30 (ovine:caprine). They were preserved by two methods: (1) dry salted for 12h, and (2) scalded in boiling whey for 5min and ripened for 240 days. The basic composition of ovine cheese did not significantly differ from cheese, in which part of the sheep milk was replaced by goat's milk. The composition of dry salted cheese was in general similar with scalded cheese for chemical compositions and volatile compounds. Alcohols were quantitatively the most abundant chemical family found in the Urfa cheese, and their concentration were 37.91–53.48μg100g−1 fresh cheese, especially more marked in the mature cheeses (56.21–121.54μg100g−1 cheese). After 3 months, the concentration of volatile compounds and their contents of Urfa cheese generally decreased. Thus, Urfa cheese could be matured until 90 days in brine without affecting the concentration of volatile compounds. The partial substitution of ovine milk with caprine milk by up to 10 and 20% did not generally change volatile characteristics of the cheese. However, 30% substitution of ovine milk with caprine milk increased hexanoic, octanoic, decanoic acids, 2-methyl-pentanal, 2-butanone, 2-heptanone, 2-nonanone, methyl butanoate, and decreased acetic acid, 3-methyl-butanal, heptanal, 3-hydroxy-2 butanone, and methyl-2-methyl-butanoate.

Effects of ascorbic acid, sodium metabisulfite and sodium chloride on freshness retention and microbial growth during the storage of Manzanilla-Aloreña cracked table olives

The effect of the mixture of sodium metabisulfite (SM), ascorbic acid (AA), and NaCl on the surface colour of fruits and microbial growth during the storage of cracked Manzanilla-Aloreña table olives was studied. During storage, the green colour of fruits, measured by the hue angle (tang −1(b/a)), decreased rapidly, indicating a degradation in the green and a change towards more reddish tones. The degreening rate ( k c) was lower for the highest AA concentration, while the highest final hue angle was found for the highest SM level, indicating different antioxidant mechanisms. Enterobacteriaceae were not enumerated after 20 days of brining. AA, SM, and NaCl, within the concentrations essayed, did not affect yeast growth; however, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were partially inhibited by the presence of SM and AA, showing the highest growth rate in the absence of both. The maximum population of LAB was reached at levels of SM below 0.75 g/l, intermediate AA (7.5 g/l) and NaCl (70 g/l) concentrations. Appropriate storage conditions could be obtained at the maximum levels of AA (15.0 g/l) and SM (1.5 g/l) and the lowest level of NaCl (60 g/l).

Modelled and measured dynamics of viruses in Arctic winter sea‐ice brines

We describe a model based on diffusion theory and the temperature-dependent mechanism of brine concentration in sea ice to argue that, if viruses partition with bacteria into sea-ice brine inclusions, contact rates between the two can be higher in winter sea ice than in seawater, increasing the probability of infection and possible virus production. To examine this hypothesis, we determined viral and bacterial concentrations in select winter sea-ice horizons using epifluorescence microscopy. Viral concentrations ranged from 1.6 to 82 x 10(6) ml(-1) of brine volume of the ice, with highest values in brines from coldest (-24 to -31 degrees C) ice horizons. Calculated virus-bacteria contact rates in underlying -1 degrees C seawater were similar to those in brines of -11 degrees C ice but up to 600 times lower than those in ice brines at or below -24 degrees C. We then incubated native bacterial and viral assemblages from winter sea ice for 8 days in brine at a temperature (-12 degrees C) and salinity ( approximately 160 psu) near expected in situ values, monitoring their concentrations microscopically. While different cores yielded different results, consistent with known spatial heterogeneity in sea ice, these experiments provided unambiguous evidence for viral persistence and production, as well as for bacterial growth, in -12 degrees C brine.

The sensory characteristics of different types of halloumi cheese as perceived by tasters of different ages

Three different types of halloumi cheese were assessed immediately after production and after 40 days in brine (~12% NaCl) by two taste panels, using a customized evaluation form based upon a quantitative descriptive analysis schedule. The average ages of the panels were 23 and 45, respectively. The younger panel was more conscious of the overall difference between the fresh and mature cheeses, and specifically with respect to the comparative chewiness and layered appearance of the young cheese. By contrast, the older panel was more sensitive to the salty and minty attributes of the cheeses, as well as differences in crumbliness and colour. Increasing age and/or familiarity with the product did not appear to change the tasters’ perceptions of the cheeses to the extent that might have been anticipated.

A multi-component approach to salt and water diffusion in cheese

Abstract A theoretically based model was developed using the Maxwell–Stefan equation to predict the salt gain and moisture loss of cheese during brine salting. The model was used to predict changes in the salt and moisture profile, and dimensions of the cheese. The best solutions were obtained when the diffusivities were made functions of porosity and salt concentration. For Gouda cheese the predicted moisture and salt/moisture profiles were within 0.6% moisture and 0.3% salt/moisture of published experimental data. The model predicted an overall gain in salt of 1.55% by weight, an overall reduction in moisture from 43.4 to 41.0%, a mass loss of 1.5% and a volume reduction of 2.6% after 8 days of brining.

4-Hydroxycyclohexanecarboxylic Acid as a Substrate for Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acid Production during the “Zapatera” Spoilage of Spanish-Style Green Table Olives

Zapatera spoilage was reproduced in Spanish-style green olive brines adjusted to pH 5 and with a concentration of 5% (wt/vol) NaCl. A relationship between the formation of the compound responsible for the zapatera off odor, cyclohexanecarboxylic acid, and consumption of a new compound isolated from olive brines, 4-hydroxycyclohexanecarboxylic acid, was established. When the latter compound was added to a synthetic medium inoculated with a concentrated microbial suspension from a zapatera brine, cyclohexanecarboxylic acid was formed. 4-Hydroxy-cyclohexanecarboxylic acid was not detected in fresh olives, NaOH solutions, or water washes. In normal fermentation brines it was not detected after 30 days of brining, its concentration increasing in a progressive manner thereafter during typical lactic acid fermentation of Spanish-style green olives.