Data Transmission Rate Research Articles

5G Frequency Standardization, Technologies, Channel Models, and Network Deployment: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions

The rapid increase in data traffic caused by the proliferation of smart devices has spurred the demand for extremely large-capacity wireless networks. Thus, faster data transmission rates and greater spectral efficiency have become critical requirements in modern-day networks. The ubiquitous 5G is an end-to-end network capable of accommodating billions of linked devices and offering high-performance broadcast services due to its several enabling technologies. However, the existing review works on 5G wireless systems examined only a subset of these enabling technologies by providing a limited coverage of the system model, performance analysis, technology advancements, and critical design issues, thus requiring further research directions. In order to fill this gap and fully grasp the potential of 5G, this study comprehensively examines various aspects of 5G technology. Specifically, a systematic and all-encompassing evaluation of the candidate 5G enabling technologies was conducted. The evolution of 5G, the progression of wireless mobile networks, potential use cases, channel models, applications, frequency standardization, key research issues, and prospects are discussed extensively. Key findings from the elaborate review reveal that these enabling technologies are critical to developing robust, flexible, dependable, and scalable 5G and future wireless communication systems. Overall, this review is useful as a resource for wireless communication researchers and specialists.

Recent Advances in Optical Injection Locking for Visible Light Communication Applications

The introduction of visible light communication (VLC) technology could increase the capacity of existing wireless communication systems towards 6G networks. In practice, VLC can make good use of lighting system infrastructures to transmit data using light fidelity (Li-Fi). The use of semiconductor light sources, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes (LDs) are essential to VLC technology because these devices are energy-efficient and have long lifespans. To achieve high-speed VLC links, various technologies have been utilized, including injection locking. Optical injection locking (OIL) is an optical frequency and phase synchronization technique that has been implemented in semiconductor laser systems for performance enhancement. High-performance optoelectronic devices with narrow linewidth, wide tunable emission, large modulation bandwidth and high data transmission rates are desired for advanced VLC. Thus, the features of OIL could be promising for building high-performance VLC systems. In this paper, we present a comprehensive review of the implementation of the injection-locking technique in optical communication systems. The enhancement of characteristics through OIL is elucidated. The applications of OIL in VLC systems are discussed. The prospects of OIL for future VLC systems are evaluated.

Performance Study of Generalized Space Time Block Coded Enhanced Fully Optical Generalized Spatial Modulation System Based on Málaga Distribution Model

This paper proposes a generalized space time block coded (GSTBC) enhanced fully optical generalized spatial modulation (EFOGSM) system based on Málaga (M) turbulent channel. GSTBC-EFOGSM adopts the hybrid concept of generalized space time block coded and optical spatial modulation to further utilize the high transmission rate of EFOGSM and the diversity advantage of GSTBC in free space optical (FSO) communication systems. Considering the combined effects of path loss, pointing error and atmospheric turbulence, the Meijer G function is used to derive the closed-form expression for the average bit error rate (ABER) of GSTBC-EFOGSM. Then, the ABER performance, data transmission rate, energy efficiency and computational complexity at the receiver of GSTBC-EFOGSM are compared with other optical spatial modulation schemes by simulation. In addition, the effects of key factors, such as data transmission rate, encoding ratio, number of photodetectors and modulation order, on the ABER performance of the system are also analyzed via simulation. Monte Carlo (MC) simulation is used to verify the correctness of the numerical simulation. The simulation results show that the GSTBC-EFOGSM system has better ABER performance and good performance gain.

A sensing-based patient classification framework for efficient patient-nurse scheduling

Nowadays, hospitals and government departments are struggling to reduce the health costs and improve the service quality. Hospitals rely mainly on nurses who have many duties including caring of patients, communicating with doctors, administering medicine and checking vital signs. Wireless body sensor network (WBSN) is one of the main applications that helps the medical staff in electronic health surveillance with early detection of critical physiological symptoms. However, the rapid growth in the patient number poses a high pressure on hospitals and increases the nurse duties. In addition, WBSN suffers from big data collected by the medical sensors. Therefore, collecting data is one of the major reason behind the exhaustion of limited energy. In this paper, we propose a novel and efficient framework for nurse–patient intelligent task organization that treats the scheduling problem in hospitals. Typically, our framework consists of three phases: data collection and transmission, patient classification, and nurse scheduling. The first phase uses the early warning system (EWS) to update the medical staff when the patient situation is changed. This will help to minimize the energy consumption in sensor and control its data transmission rate. Once the patient data are collected, the second level introduces an efficient classification model that grouping patients according to the severity level of their vital signs. The last phase proposes a nurse-scheduling algorithm based on the classification results and some priority metrics to balance the workload of the stressed medical personnel. We performed our simulation on real health sensor data collected from 18 patients, including various vital signs, while assuming a certain number of nurses. The obtained results show the effectiveness of our framework in conserving the sensor energy up to 95%, and ensuring a balanced nurse workloads where each nurse serves, during each period of one hour, an average of 5 patients with corresponding cumulative criticality of 62%.

Comparison between dicode PPM and offset PPM enhancement with different error correction codes

AbstractOffset pulse position modulation (OPPM) and Dicode pulse position modulation (DiPPM) have been introduced as new attractive modulation techniques, however, they are suffering from erasure, wrong slot, and false alarm errors. in this paper, two types of error correction (EC) codes, Low‐Density Parity Check (LDPC) code and Reed Solomon (RS) code, where paired the OPPM and DiPPM systems to reduce bugs, analyze the best EC parameters, and choose the superlative EC system. In other words, the performance of OPPM engaging LDPC codes and DiPPM employing LDPC codes will be compared against the OPPM engaging RS codes and DiPPM employing RS codes. To systematically carry out this comparison, numbers of photons, transmission efficiency, and the code rate are computed. The evaluation has stated that the data transmission rate at the start has indicated that OPPM with LDPC requires only 1.2 × 103 photons/pulse compared to the necessity of 1.821 × 103 photons/pulse when the DiPPM used LDPC. Accordingly, the transmission efficiency has been increased due to a reduction of number of photons. Also, the coded OPPM with LDPC codes is better than the coded DiPPM with LDPC codes when operating at a code rate that is approximately 0.7.

Detection Process in Macroscopic Air-Based Molecular Communication Using a PIN Photodiode

An air-based macroscopic molecular communication (MC) testbed is presented exploiting the fluorescent properties of a highlighter-ink water-based solution. The testbed consists of a pressure sprayer as its transmitter, a 2 m long tube as the transmission channel, and a newly designed PIN-photodiode-based detector at the receiver side. The considered transmission distances cover a range over several tens of centimeters to meters. The on-off keying (OOK) modulation scheme is implemented in the new setup and a bit error rate (BER) analysis is performed over the channel length. A data transmission rate of 50 bit/s is achieved, which is more than twice that of the erstwhile implemented testbed using a camera-based detector, at a comparable BER. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is perhaps the fastest transmission rate ever achieved across all existing macroscale MC testbeds employing OOK.

Modified entropy based least square channel estimation technique for 5G massive multiple input multiple output universal filtered multicarrier systems

These days’ Massive multiple input multiple output (mMIMO) systems have become popular because of their enhanced data transmission rates, robustness against multipath fading, enhanced spectral efficacy, and ability to communicate with a more significant number of users with immense coverage. The critical challenge of the mMIMO systems is precisely replenishing the channel state information (CSI), along with the synchronization between receiver and transmitter. The CSI has recovered with the help of various channel estimation (CE) techniques. This paper presents a modified entropy-based least square CE technique for 5G mMIMO-UFMC systems. The proposed CE technique performance is novel and better than the Least Square (LS) and minimum mean square error (MMSE) CE techniques. The proposed CE technique was evaluated using MATLAB, and its performance results are shown in the simulation. The performance results of the proposed CE are evaluated based on the mean square error (MSE) and bit error rate (BER) of the obtained signal. The executed results prove that the proposed CE is efficient compared to conventional CE methods. The performance of the MCM techniques with respect to the proposed CE is also presented in this paper. This paper also explains the analytical assessment of the LS, MMSE, and MELS CE techniques. The results show that at high values of SNR, the proposed algorithm outperforms the LS and MMSE for both BER and MSE.

Application of 5G telesurgery in urology

AbstractThe fifth generation of mobile communication technology (5G technology) features large system capacity, fast data transmission rate, support for large‐scale device connection, low latency, and high reliability. With the development and popularization of 5G technology, it is also widely used in medicine. In recent years, 5G telesurgery has been paid attention to and made continuous progress, and the research related to its combination with urology has also made significant achievements. We collect the combination of 5G technology and urology improves the uneven distribution of medical resources, provides timely, high‐quality remote surgical interventions for urology patients, reduces the financial burden on patients, surgical complications, and the difficulty of accessing medical care from a distance, and brings new opportunities for medical development.

Full-duplex underwater wireless blue light communication.

Owing to its relatively low absorption loss and high data transmission rate, wireless blue light communication is becoming an increasingly attractive technology for underwater applications. Here, we demonstrate an underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) system that communicates using blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with a dominant wavelength of 455 nm. Under the on-off keying modulation scheme, the waterproof UOWC system achieves a bidirectional communication rate of 4 Mbps based on the transmission control protocol (TCP) and exhibits real-time full-duplex video communication with a transmission distance of 12 m in a swimming pool, offering great potential for practical use in real-world scenarios, such as carried around or attached to an autonomous vehicle.

Hybrid Power Car Controller Simulation and Testing Equipment and Procedure

This research presents a device and procedure for simulating and testing the finished car controller of a hybrid power car. The device utilizes a PCI interface and a microprocessor for communication, resulting in improved reliability, high data transmission rate, and excellent expandability. By employing a mathematical model of the power unit, the system achieves cost reduction. The device includes a microprocessor unit, a PCI bus processing unit, a display unit, and an interface board card. Through connections between these components, convenient configuration of the finished car's structure, power unit parameters, operation spectrum, road spectrum, and interface board attributes are achieved, enhancing the system's versatility. When applied to testing hybrid power car controllers, this device and procedure reduce test duration and cost, while providing stable and accurate test results.

An energy balance cluster network framework based on Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer

Wireless NanoSensor Network (WNSN) is a brand-new type of sensor network with broad application prospects. In view of the limited energy of nano-nodes and unstable links in WNSNs, we propose an energy balance cluster network framework (EBCNF) based on Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT). The EBCNF framework extends the network lifetime of nano-nodes and uses a clustering algorithm called EBACC (an energy balance algorithm for intra-cluster and inter-cluster nodes) to make the energy consumption of nodes more uniform. Simulation shows that the EBCNF framework can make the network energy consumption more uniform, reduce the error rate of data transmission and the average network throughput, and can be used as an effective routing framework for WNSNs.

Research on Winter Wheat Growth Stages Recognition Based on Mobile Edge Computing

The application of deep learning (DL) technology to the identification of crop growth processes will become the trend of smart agriculture. However, using DL to identify wheat growth stages on mobile devices requires high battery energy consumption, significantly reducing the device’s operating time. However, implementing a DL framework on a remote server may result in low-quality service and delays in the wireless network. Thus, the DL method should be suitable for detecting wheat growth stages and implementable on mobile devices. A lightweight DL-based wheat growth stage detection model with low computational complexity and a computing time delay is proposed; aiming at the shortcomings of high energy consumption and a long computing time, a wheat growth period recognition model and dynamic migration algorithm based on deep reinforcement learning is proposed. The experimental results show that the proposed dynamic migration algorithm has 128.4% lower energy consumption and 121.2% higher efficiency than the local implementation at a wireless network data transmission rate of 0–8 MB/s.

Smart Vehicle: A Systematic Review

This article gives a summary of the existing state of affairs and potential developments for smart vehicles while taking into consideration social, technological, and transportation aspects. Additionally, it examines the strategies for turning the smart into a generic vehicle, potential future developments, 5G, ADAS, and power source characteristics. This will make it possible for linked automobiles to take center stage in smart cities. Information may be exchanged between vehicles and road infrastructures as well as from one vehicle to another thanks to the vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication systems. It attempts to improve mobility, prevent or lessen auto accidents, and offer additional advantages for road safety. Motivations, open problems, and suggestions from other academics were taken into account to improve the knowledge of many contextual components and characteristics of the industry. All publications about data transfers in the V2I communication system were thoroughly searched. They employ DSRC and 5G, Bluetooth, and WIFI technology in that, however there is a range and data transmission rate issue. I exploited RF frequencies to spontaneously broadcast the data in order to get around that.

Heterogeneous integration of a GaN-based photonic integrated circuit with an Si-based transimpedance amplifier.

The heterogeneous integration of a GaN-based photonic integrated circuit (PIC) and an Si-based transimpedance amplifier (TIA) is demonstrated in this work. The monolithic GaN PIC, fabricated from a GaN-on-Si light-emitting diode (LED) wafer, comprises LEDs whose optical outputs are coupled to photodetectors (PD) through suspended waveguides. The PIC chip is mounted onto a printed circuit board together with a TIA chip and two filter chip capacitors, occupying a compact footprint. The components are interconnected directly using wire-bonds to minimize signal delays and attenuation. The integrated system achieves rise and fall times of 2.21 and 2.10 ns, respectively, a transmission delay of 3.54 ns, and a bandwidth exceeding 390 MHz. Transmission of a pseudorandom binary sequence-3 (PRBS-3) signal across the integrated system is also demonstrated at the data transmission rate of 280 Mbit/s with a clearly resolved open eye diagram.

Silicon Photonic Single-Segment IQ Modulator for Net 1 Tbps/λ Transmission Using All-Electronic Equalization

There is a continuous need to scale optical communication networks' capacity to cope with the exponential growth of data traffic. Silicon photonics (SiP) retains significant potential as a platform for optical transceivers due to its CMOS compatibility, despite its limited electro-optic bandwidth and high driving voltage requirements. Here we present the design and characterization of two single-segment C-band SiP in-phase quadrature modulators (IQM) that differ in the phase shifter length, and we analyze the design tradeoffs based on their transmission performance. <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">The large-signal transmission experiments indicate that the long IQM supports higher data transmission rates, which has 36 GHz 6-dB bandwidth and 10.5 V DC V_π under 1 V reverse bias.</b> With all-electronic equalization and on a single polarization, we transmit net 413 Gbps (95 Gbaud 32QAM) over 80 km of standard single-mode fiber (SSMF) under the 14.8% overhead concatenated forward error correction (C-FEC) BER threshold of 1.25 × 10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">−2</sup> . Using dual-polarization (DP) emulation and lookup table-based non-linear pre-distortion (NLPD), we demonstrate the transmission of 95 Gbaud DP-32QAM and 115 Gbaud DP-16QAM over 80 km of SSMF below the C-FEC BER threshold, corresponding to net rates of 827 Gbps and 800 Gbps, respectively. Moreover, we transmit 105 Gbaud DP-64QAM over 80 km below the 25% overhead soft-decision (SD) FEC BER threshold of 5 × 10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">−2</sup> ; featuring the first demonstration of net 1 Tbps transmission using an all-silicon IQM. Employing only electronic equalization and single-segment IQM preserves the conventional architecture of coherent networks and transceivers, and highlights the potential of SiP as a platform for next-generation 800G applications.

Probabilistic and distributed traffic control in LPWANs

Low-power, low data transmission rates, and long-range wireless networks, also known as LPWANs, are intended to work best with equipment that uses few resources and can be used for many years thanks to their long battery life operation. This type of networks can handle traffic from nearly 1,000 nodes while maintaining a duty cycle of less than 1%. However, as the nodes become denser, the number of collisions increases and network traffic management becomes mandatory. To address this concern, we propose a Distributed and Probabilistic Traffic Control algorithm (DiPTC) that allows nodes to change their traffic in response to the application requirements (e.g., acquiring K measurements over a period of time) while being agnostic to the number of nodes or the network topology. When this requirement is not achieved, the gateway sends a feedback message to all the nodes so that they may adapt their traffic. We compare the proposed solution to LoRaWAN and to a Centralized Optimal Traffic Control solution (COTraC), in simulation. Compared to LoRaWAN, our algorithm proved successful in achieving the objective while minimizing collisions and extending the network lifetime threefold.

Secure Internet of Things based hybrid optimization techniques for optimal centroid routing protocol in wireless sensor network

SummaryThe recent survey depicts internet growth has been reached to billion of people and Internet of Things (IoT) as another milestone. IoT is wired or wireless communication technologies to establish a communication channel between devices and services available over the Internet. The wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is one of the most essential technologies assisted in IoT for real‐time applications. The energy efficiency is a major issue in IoT and it becomes more complex due to large scalability and the WSNs cannot be applied directly to the IoT. Moreover, routing is a very challenging aspect that takes place in such platform because of it is intrinsic properties. In this article, we propose an optimal centroid‐based routing protocol (OCRP) for WSN assisted IoT based on hybrid optimization techniques, which aim is to enhance the energy efficiency and network lifetime. IoT network is composed by serving nodes and end users. In OCRP, a multi‐objective swarm optimization (MSO) algorithm is used to perform the clustering, which reduce the chaotic in nature of energy consumption. Then, multiservice queue based ant optimization algorithm is proposed for next neighborhood selection for inter‐cluster routing. Finally, our OCRP protocol is experimented with different simulation in network simulator (NS‐2) tool with wireless body sensor network (WBSN) application. The simulation results show the effectiveness of OCRP protocol in terms of energy consumption, average data transmission rate and network lifetime.

Improving THz Transmission Distance for Delay-Sensitive Services via Mobile Computing

Next-generation wireless networks are expected to support delay-sensitive applications such as augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR). In AR/VR applications, computational jobs are offloaded to the edge computing server. Such offloading process requires transmissions of large data packets with low latency. Terahertz (THz) band can provide hundreds of GHz bandwidth and thus is promising in enabling ultra-high speed data transmissions. However, THz transmission distance is limited due to its inherently severe propagation loss. This paper considers to improve THz transmission distance with the help of mobile computing. The key idea is that, if mobile devices can handle partial computational jobs, the data transmission rate requirement is lowered, which in turn helps to improve THz transmission distance. Specifically, we aim to maximize THz transmission distance by jointly optimizing users' job offloading decisions and transmission carrier frequencies. To that end, we first introduce a delay-violation probability to characterize the delay constraints for delay-sensitive services. Based on the derived delay-violation probability, we formulate a THz transmission distance maximization (THz-TDM) problem. This THz-TDM problem is non-convex. To solve this issue, we derive in closed-form the expression of the achievable transmission distance with respect to carrier frequency and data rate. Subsequently, we propose a Hungarian-ADMM based iterative algorithm (HAB) and a low-complexity Rearrangement Inequality-like algorithm (RIL). The proposed RIL involves no iterations but only applies to the case where the edge computing server queue stability constraint is relaxed. Numerical results show that the developed schemes can effectively improve THz transmission distance.

Two code keying using optical CDMA system with 2D multi-method codes

We propose a novel family of two-dimensional multi-methods with two codes keying (2D MM with TCK) in spectral amplitude coding optical code division multiple access (OCDMA) networks. The idea transfers one code keying (OCK) of one-dimensional (1D) MM codes into two code keying (TCK) of 2D MM codes. The rationale has OCK transferred into TCK, 2D matrix formulations using the 2D MM codes, and modified cross-correlation. The research solution resolves the first item using two OCKs of 2D MM codes to become TCK of 2D MM codes to call 2D MM codes with TCK, the second item using two sets of 1D MM codes to produce 2D matrix formulations using 2D MM codes, and the third item using the cross-correlation to transfer into a modified cross-correlation. The modified cross-correlation eliminates multiuser interference. The proposed analysis utilizes a modified photocurrent to suppress phase-induced intensity noise. In the numerical results, the number of simultaneous users, data transmission rate, and effective source power using 2D MM codes with TCK are 294, 4.72 Gbps, and − 12 dBm, respectively.

Incongruities in recently revised radiofrequency exposure guidelines and standards

The currently promulgated RF exposure guidelines and standards cover the entire range of RF radiation and apply predominantly to restrict RF-induced short-term heating and in guarding against raising tissue temperatures, including the 5G frequencies. There are substantial abnormalities in these putative health safety protection guidelines and standards. Some of the safety limits are irrelevant, debatable, and absent of scientific justification from the standpoint of safety and public health protection. Also, the cellular mobile 5G technology is hailed as a speedier and more secure wireless communication technology than its predecessor systems. The key supporting architecture uses millimeter-wave (mm-wave) and antenna array technology to achieve better directivity, lower latency, and elevated data transmission rates. For radiation protection, it is not obvious whether the health effects of 5G mm-wave radiations would be analogous or not to radiations from previous generations (which was classified as possibly carcinogenic in humans by IARC). The interaction of mm-waves with the structure and function of pertinent cellular elements and cutaneous neuroreceptors in the skin are of special concern. The current scientific database is inadequate at mm wavelengths to render a trustworthy appraisal or to reach a judgment with confidence.