Darjeeling District Research Articles

Taxonomic mapping of Tabanidae (Diptera: Tabanidae) from Darjeeling Himalaya, a part of Indo-Burmese biodiversity hotspot

The family Tabanidae includes horse flies (referred to flies of genus Tabanus), deer flies (Chrysops) and clegs (Haematopota). They are mainly popular in this tropical climate for their disease-causing abilities and one of those important disease that even may lead to fatal consequences in cattle animals is Surra disease that causes havoc in wild and livestocks in this region. A total of 22 tabanid species under 5 genera, 4 tribes and 3 subfamilies so far known from Darjeeling district of West Bengal, are keyed and diagnosed. Their distribution patterns are discussed wherever deemed necessary. Among them, single genus namely Hybomitra Enderlein, 1922 and four species are reported for the first time from this district and also from the state of West Bengal. Moreover, there is scope for taxonomic studies on this group of flies in this important biodiversity hot spot of northeastern Himalaya since it falls under diverse Indo-Malayan biome. Most of the species are however expected to exhibit extensive distribution pattern in the long run, as more extensive taxonomic and ecological studies are due on this interesting group of biting flies of veterinary importance.

Diversity and distribution of macrofungi in the Eastern Himalayan ecosystem

Background: Eastern Himalayas have rich biodiversity but are threatened by anthropogenic activities and periodic natural calamities. The present investigation focused on the cryptogamic group of macrofungi in the Darjeeling Himalayas which are extremely diverse and ecologically significant, but have received very little attention from a conservation perspective. Material and Methods: Investigations were conducted during June-September of 2013-2014 in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal, India, wherein, local macrofungi were sampled in mixed to monoculture forests using 50 random transects 100x2 m. Fruit bodies were studied, collected, identified in the laboratory and deposited at Calcutta University Herbarium. Sampling units were georeferenced and physico-climatic factors were derived from the WORLDCLIM database. Results: The macrofungi belonged to 98 species representing 72 genera and 47 families; 58.16% were saprotrophs, 17.34% were ectomycorrhizal and 10.2% were parasitic. The most species-rich families were Russulaceae with 9 Russula species followed by Marasmiaceae with 4 Marasmius species and Coprinaceae with 3 Coprinus species. Most of the ectomycorrhizal macrofungi were hosted by natural stands of Quercus, Lithocarpus and Betula. The only species with zooparasitic capability were Cordyceps nutans and C. militaris. The relative abundance of only 6 saprotrophs communicatively accounted for 52.84% of the total abundance. Conclusions: The findings showed that this region is rich in macrofungal diversity intricately linked to the functioning of the local ecosystem. However, a high proportion of saprotrophs compared to ectomycorrhizal species suggests disturbance and degradation of regional forests. Mycofloristically important localities like Lolaygaon, Sonada, and Lameydhura in the Darjeeling district should be prioritized for further studies and future conservation action.

A comparison of the predicted vulnerability zones with the data based on hazard zones of landslide in the Kurseong hill subdivision, Darjeeling district, West Bengal, India

Kurseong hill subdivision, being one of the three (Kurseong, Sadar and Kalingpong) subdivisions of the hilly portions of the Darjeeling district, West Bengal, India, is affected by severe landslide incidence in the rainy season every year. These landslides and related phenomena frequently create social and economic instability disrupting communication system, claiming property and even sometimes life. Curbing landslide threat, therefore, becomes very much essential over this area. Individual landslide treatments are seen to be taken up by the construction engineers and geo-technical experts almost every year from government level. But reoccurrence of landslides on the same spots or surrounding places clearly reveals that construction works and filling procedures (usually taken up) are not the adequate measures to heal up the problem unless the area is treated as zones of landslides than individual spots of landslide occurrences. Therefore, the assessment of spatial probability of landslide occurrence in various magnitudes in the form of landslide vulnerability zones becomes essential. This spatial probability should also be compared with temporal probability based on the data of landslide incidence of the area for justification of match or mismatch between the inference drawn from the diagnostic criteria based assessment of the possibility level of landslide occurrence and the reality of the landslide scenario in the light of historical perspective of the area. This comparison will finally help to achieve the predicted vulnerability zones of landslide with desirable accuracy to put forward for planning decision. Moreover, such predicted vulnerability zonation can be taken as a standard estimate to use in planning purpose for the areas where historical data of landslide incidences are inadequate or unavailable. With this view in mind, the present paper takes an attempt to verify and compare landslide vulnerability zones derived from Spatial Terrain Parameter Evaluation (STPE) and Anthropogenic Criteria Identification (ACI) methods with the landslide hazard zones prepared from historical data, i.e. landslide inventory of certain length of time. Careful observation reveals that different degrees of landslide vulnerability zones significantly correspond with the similar magnitudes of the landslide hazard zones determined by past occurrence data of landslides over this hill subdivision and therefore validate the predictability procedure of landslide vulnerability zonation. The accuracy performance of the landslide vulnerability zonation model has further been verified by the occurrence dataset of landslide events through receiver operating characteristic curve analysis where area under curve evaluation showed 81.77 % correctness.

Site suitability analysis for agricultural land use of Darjeeling district using AHP and GIS techniques

Darjeeling district covered with 60.89 % of its land under Himalayan dense forest producing exquisite biodiversity and variations in climate with a diversified fauna and flora. Therefore, designs great scope for agricultural development in the rural area of the Himalayan foothills to boost rural economies. However, agriculture not mostly developed in this district due to different physical threats (such as very high slope and elevation, dense vegetation cover, fewer irrigation facilities, dry soil, etc.), socio-economic problems and lack of adequate transportation. Land suitability analysis can help to establish the strategies for the development of agricultural productivity. AHP with the integration of GIS-based multi-criterion decision making an approach using DEM and Landsat 8 satellite data was utilized to evaluate land suitability for agriculture production in hilly areas. Various ‘expert opinions’ was used to determine the results of selected parameters whereas pairwise comparison matrix used to established the weights. About, 5.31 % area is classified in the class highly suitable, 29.82 % in moderately suitable, 24.27 % in marginally suitable, and 40.60 % in unsuitable for agriculture. The techniques, methodology and results of the study can be effective to assess the suitable land for agriculture in hilly regions.

Genetic variability, character association and path coefficient analysis in orchids (Orchid spp) of Mizoram, Sikkim and Darjeeling District of West Bengal for various quantitative traits

Efforts were made on augmentation of orchids germplasm in different parts of Mizoram, Pakyong (Sikkim) and Pedong (Darjeeling hills of West Bengal) during 2011-2013 to estimate the genetic variability, heritability, genetic advance, correlation and path coefficient in seventy nine diverse genotypes of orchids on 14 important quantitative traits. Germplasms were evaluated for various vegetative, floral and spike quality related traits. Flower quality characters like length of spike, length of internode of the spike, length of pedicel were found to be high in the species like Arundina graminifolia and Cymbidium aloifolium. However, the number of florets/spike was more in Oberonia orbicularis and Oberonbia iridifolia and Phaius tankervillae recorded biggest floret size. Spike longevity was found to be high in Dendrobium formosum and Vanda parishii. Spike yield was maximum in Dendrobium chrysanthum and Dendrobium eriaeflorum. The study revealed wide variation for all the characters indicating sufficient genetic variability to be exploited in breeding programme. The maximum value of PCV and GCV was recorded for floret diameter. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance was observed for plant height, leaves/pseudobulb, florets/spike, floret diameter and pedicel length. Selection on the basis of these characters would be more effective for the improvement of orchids. Spike length showed positive and highly significant association with spike longevity and number of florets/spike at genotypic and phenotypic level. Highly significant correlation of spike yield was found with pseudobulbs/plant, leaf dimensions, flowers/spike and number of spike/pseudobulb at both the levels of correlation coefficient.

Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus & its Risk Factor: Community based Study amongst Workers of a Tea Garden in Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India

Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus & its Risk Factor: Community based Study amongst Workers of a Tea Garden in Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India

Insect and Mammalian Pests of Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxburgh) in Sikkim Himalaya

Insect and Mammalian Pests of Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxburgh) in Sikkim Himalaya Large cardamom is an important cash crop of Sikkim and Darjeeling district of West Bengal. About 3863 MT of large cardamom are produced annually from an area of 26,459 ha in Sikkim region. Insect pests are one of the constraints of large cardamom production. Surveillance was carried out in the major large cardamom growing tracts during 2010 - 12 and incidences of major pests were recorded. Minor insect pests, mammalian pests and new pests in large cardamom ecosystem were documented. Entomopathogens of leaf caterpillar (Artona chorista) were identified...

A clinicopathological study of peripheral lymph nodes in HIV-infected patients with special reference to CD4+ T-cell counts: Experience from a tertiary care institution in Darjeeling (India).

HIV/AIDS is a major health burden worldwide. India bears the third highest HIV-patients load globally. In the Darjeeling district, HIV-prevalence is >1% with very little known about the profile of HIV-lymphadenopathy. The aim of this study was to identify the different causes of peripheral lymphadenopathy among HIV-infected patients in this region, correlate them with CD4+ T-cell counts and formulate some common clinico-haematological parameters as potential predictors of CD4+ T-cell count. In the present study, 76 cases were evaluated. Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) was performed as an out-patient procedure in the Department of Pathology. Smears were stained routinely with Haematoxylin-Eosin and Leishman stains. ZN stains were done when indicated by the cytological findings. Immediate CD4+ T-cell count was obtained by referring the patients to the Anti-retroviral therapy centre. Cytological diagnoses included tuberculosis (82.9%), reactive hyperplasia (6.6%), nonspecific granulomatous lesions (3.9%), non-Hodgkin lymphoma (2.6%), histoplasmosis (2.6%) and simultaneous filariasis with toxoplasmosis (1.3%). Statistically, the opportunistic infections and lymphomas significantly concurred with a CD4+ T-cell count <350/μl. Likewise, the number of enlarged lymph nodes and absolute lymphocyte count (ALC) were found to be useful predictors of CD4+ T-cell counts. Lymph node cytology in HIV-infected patients is essential to identify opportunistic infections from neoplastic lesions and; to enable therapeutic strategies. Correlation of lesions with mean CD4+ T-cell count predicts personal immunity, stage of disease and disease activity. Furthermore, enlarged lymph node numbers and ALC can be surrogate markers of CD4+ T-cell count for monitoring the severity of the immune suppression in under-resourced countries like India.

Rediscovery of the red-listed grass Isachne dimyloides (Poaceae: Micrairoideae) 130 years after type collection

This paper reports rediscovery of a rare grass Isachne dimyloides after a gap of 130 years since its type collection. The type locality of the species is the Darjeeling district of West Bengal, India and the collection was made by C.B. Clarke in the year 1884. The present collection was made in 2012 from Cachar district of Assam (India) which also indicates its geographic range extension from the Darjeeling foothills to the Assam floodplain. In this paper a description of the species, a key, and an illustration are provided to facilitate identification. Priority conservation is highly recommended for this rare species.

First Report of Nigrospora Leaf Blight on Tea Caused by Nigrospora sphaerica in India.

Tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] is an economically important non-alcoholic caffeine-containing beverage crop widely cultivated for leaves in India, especially in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. In May 2012, distinct blight symptoms were observed on leaves of popular tea cultivars AV-2, Tukdah 78, Rungli Rungliot 17/144, and Bannockburn 157 in commercial tea estates of the Darjeeling district. This disease reduces yield and quality of the leaves. The initial symptoms were frequently observed on the young leaf margins and apices. Foliar symptoms are characterized by grayish to brown, semicircular or irregular shaped lesions, often surrounded by pale yellow zones up to 9 mm in diameter. The lesions later expand and the affected leaves turn grayish to dark brown and eventually the dried tissue falls, leading to complete defoliation of the plant. The disease causes damage to leaves of all ages and is severe in young leaves. A portion of the symptomatic leaf tissues were surface sterilized in 70% ethanol for 30 s, then in 2% NaClO for 3 min, rinsed three times in sterile distilled water, and plated onto potato dextrose agar (PDA). The fungal colonies were initially white and then became grayish to brown with sporulation. Conidia were spherical to sub spherical, single-celled, black, 19 to 21 μm in diameter, and were borne on a hyaline vesicle at the tip of each conidiophore. Morphological characteristics of the isolates were concurring to those of Nigrospora sphaerica (1). Moreover, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the ribosomal RNA was amplified by using primers ITS1 and ITS4 and sequenced (GenBank Accession No. KJ767520). The sequence was compared to the GenBank database through nucleotide BLAST search and the isolate showed 100% similarity to N. sphaerica (KC519729.1). On the basis of morphological characteristics and nucleotide homology, the isolate was identified as N. sphaerica. Koch's postulates were fulfilled in the laboratory on tea leaves inoculated with N. sphaerica conidial suspension (106 conidia ml-1) collected from a 7-day-old culture on PDA. Six inoculated 8-month-old seedlings of tea cultivars AV-2 and S.3/3 were incubated in a controlled environment chamber at 25°C and 80 to 85% humidity with a 12-h photoperiod. In addition, three plants of each cultivar were sprayed with sterile distilled water to serve as controls. Twelve to 14 days after inoculation, inoculated leaves developed blight symptoms similar to those observed on naturally infected tea leaves in the field. No symptoms were observed on the control leaves. The pathogen was re-isolated from lesions and its identity was confirmed by morphological characteristics. It was reported that N. sphaerica is frequently encountered as a secondary invader or as a saprophyte on many plant species and also as a causative organism of foliar disease on several hosts worldwide (2,3). To our knowledge, this is first report of N. sphaerica as a foliar pathogen of Camellia sinensis in Darjeeling, West Bengal, India, or worldwide.

Magnitude and reasons of initial default among new sputum positive cases of pulmonary tuberculosis under RNTCP in a district of West Bengal, India

Under the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP), Tuberculosis services are provided free of charge in India; all diagnosed TB patients are initiated on treatment within 7 days. Initial default is a potentially serious problem, particularly in cases of smear positive patients because they may continue transmitting the disease. This study was conducted to estimate the proportion of new sputum positive pulmonary TB patients who dropped out before initiating treatment, and their reasons for not registering for treatment. A cross-sectional study was carried out at Darjeeling District from July 2011 to April 2012 among 132 initial defaulters. Initial defaulter rate was 23.5%. A majority of the defaulters were 15-29 years old (59.10%); male (70.45%); from rural areas (80.06%); literate (78.79%); employed (86.36%); married (71.97%); non-smokers (77.27%); and had a mean per capita monthly income of Rs 741.40. Age, literacy, employment, marital status, smoking habits, alcohol consumption and pre treatment counseling were associated more among males than females and the differences were statistically significant. Among ‘busy with other jobs’, 76.19 % of patients were from a rural area, 71.43%were below the mean age, 73.81% had below mean per capita income. Among ‘temporary vocational migration’, 87.8% of patients were from rural areas, 56.1% were below the mean age, 63.41% had below mean per capita income. Among ‘idle at home’, 78.57% patients were from rural areas, 60.71% were below mean age, 75% had below mean per capita income. There is a need to convince the tuberculosis patients for initiating and completing treatment.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/seajph.v4i1.21839 South East Asia Journal of Public Health Vol.4(1) 2014: 41-47

Evaluation of in vitro antioxidant potential of Tea (Camelia sinensis) leaves obtained from different heights of Darjeeling Hill, West Bengal

Tea (Camelia sinensis) is the most consumed beverage and is also known for its medicinal value. Tea plants grown at higher altitude are subject to enhanced oxidative stress due to high UV radiation, climatic changes, and soil conditions, compared to places at low altitude. The present study was undertaken to find out whether the antioxidant activity and the content of bioactives change with the variations of altitudes in a district of Darjeeling, where tea is cultivated most. The samples were collected from six different altitudes of Darjeeling hill, viz. 6900, 5800, 4500, 3600, 2500 and 500 feet. The assays performed included ABTS radical cation decolorization assay, DPPH radical decolorization assay, reducing power assay, total polyphenols content, tannin content and total flavonoid content. It was observed that ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging abilities were reduced with increasing altitude, suggesting probable depletion of the antioxidant bioactives on exposure to extreme climatic conditions as well as elevated UV radiations. However, changes in the major bioactives of tea like tannins and flavonoids with altitude were non-significant, suggesting that although the plant tries to cope up with extreme climatic conditions, its medicinal value remains almost unchanged with altitude.

Safety of Dam Structures from Ground Vibrations Due to Demolition Blasting of Coffer Wall of a Hydroelectric Project in India

The National Hydroelectric Project Corporation (NHPC) Limited, a Government of India Undertaking, while constructing a 132 MW Hydroelectric Project on the river Teesta at the district of Darjeeling in West Bengal built one concrete coffer wall on the upstream of the river to facilitate the construction of barrage and spillway. One end of the coffer wall was abutted to the barrage pier and the other end to the left bank onto the cellular wall. The demolition of the said coffer wall by controlled blasting was entrusted to CSIR-CIMFR by NHPC. The paper deals with the scientific methodology resorted by CSIR-CIMFR for accomplishing the job successfully with full safety to the nearby structures viz. barrage, spillway, Intake, penstocks, surface powerhouse, tail channel, pot head yard etc.

Cryptic diversity and habitat partitioning in an economically important aphid species complex

Cardamom Bushy Dwarf Virus (CBDV) is an aphid-borne nanovirus which infects large cardamom, Amomum subulatum (Zingiberaceae family), in the Himalayan foothills of Northeast India, Nepal and Bhutan. Two aphid species have been reported to transmit CBDV, including Pentalonia nigronervosa and Micromyzus kalimpongensis (also described as Pentalonia kalimpongensis). However, P. nigronervosa was recently split into two species which exhibit different host plant affiliations. Whilst P. nigronervosa primarily feeds on banana plants, Pentaloniacaladii (previously considered a ‘form’ of P. nigronervosa) typically feeds on plants belonging to the Araceae, Heliconiaceae and Zingiberaceae families. This raises the possibility that CBDV vectors that were originally described as P. nigronervosa correspond to P. caladii. Accurate identification of vector species is important for understanding disease dynamics and for implementing management strategies. However, closely related species can be difficult to distinguish based on morphological characteristics. In this study, we used molecular markers (two mitochondrial loci and one nuclear locus) and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses to identify aphid specimens collected from 148 CBDV infected plants at a range of locations and elevations throughout Sikkim and the Darjeeling district of West Bengal (Northeast India). Our results revealed the presence of a diversity of lineages, comprising up to six distinct species in at least two related genera. These included the three species mentioned above, an unidentified Pentalonia species and two lineages belonging to an unknown genus. Surprisingly, P. caladii was only detected on a single infected plant, indicating that this species may not play an important role in CBDV transmission dynamics. Distinct elevation distributions were observed for the different species, demonstrating that the community composition of aphids which feed on large cardamom plants changes across an elevation gradient. This has implications for understanding how competent vector species could influence spatial and temporal transmission patterns of CBDV.

Koponenius gen. nov., a new genus of the millipede family Haplodesmidae from the Himalayas of India and Nepal (Diplopoda: Polydesmida).

The first, apparently westernmost indigenous representatives of Haplodesmidae are reported, from the Himalayas of Nepal and India. Both new species belong to a new genus, Koponenius gen. nov., with K. unicornis sp. nov., the type species from Darjeeling District, NE India, and K. biramus sp. nov., from Nepal. The new genus is superficially very similar to Prosopodesmus Silvestri, 1910, most species of which seem to be native to tropical Australia, partly also to southern Japan. However, Koponenius gen. nov. is easily distinguished in showing only 19 body segments, a special ozopore formula (5, 7-18), 4 transverse rows of setigerous isostictic tubercles per postcollum metatergum, and a clearly helicoid, twisted prefemoral portion of the gonopod so that the seminal groove runs mostly laterally, not mesally.

Poverty, development, and Himalayan ecosystems.

The Himalayas are rich in biodiversity but vulnerable to anthropogenic pressures. They are also host to growing number of rural poor who are dependent on forest and ecosystem services for their livelihood. Local and global efforts to integrate poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation in the Himalayas remain elusive so far. In this work, we highlight two key impediments in achieving sustainable development in the Himalayas. On the positive side, we also highlight the work of Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), a research organization based in India that seeks to integrate biodiversity concerns with livelihood security. For impediments, we draw on two examples from the Darjeeling district, India, in Eastern Himalayan region to illustrate how development organizations are failing to simultaneously address poverty and environmental issues. Based on the success of ATREE, we then propose a conceptual framework to integrate livelihood generating activities with sustainable and equitable development agenda. We recommend developing a Hindu-Kush Himalayan Ecosystem Services Network in the region to formulate a strategy for further action. We conclude by offering measures to address the challenge of integrating livelihood and environment issues through this network.

Linking ecosystem services with the constituents of human well-being for poverty alleviation in eastern Himalayas

Dependence of rural poor on local ecosystems for livelihood has potential to accelerate loss of ecosystem services. In this study, we use ecosystem services concept to investigate poverty and ecosystem interactions in the Darjeeling district, West Bengal, India which is a part of the eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. First, we assessed multidimensional poverty in six villages (57 households) in the region using household surveys. Chronic poverty existed in all the six villages in the study area and the cash income per capita per day was US$ 0.16–0.34 which is far below the international standards of defining poverty on income basis. Second, we identified five direct and three indirect drivers of ecosystem change through semi-structured interviews with the head of the households. Then we identified linkages between ecosystem services and basic human needs. These linkages were used to identify measures to improve livelihood of rural poor. The major outcome of this study is in highlighting the ecosystem-based approach to improve livelihood of rural poor.

NEW RECORD OF MELOLONTHA SP. NR. FURCICAUDA ANCCY, ANOMALA DIMIDIATE (HOPE) AND BHAHMINA SP. FROM LARGE CARDAMOM ECOSYSTEM

Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) is an important cash crop of Sikkim and Darjeeling district of West Bengal. Insect pests are one of the main constraints of production of this crop. Surveillance and monitoring for insect pests was carried out in the farm of Indian Cardamom Research Institute, Spices Board, Pangthang during 2011-12 and 2012-13. Three new species of insects viz., Melolontha sp. nr. furcicauda Anccy (Scarabidae : Melolonthinae), Anomala dimidiate (Hope) (Scarabidae : Rutelinae), Bhahmina sp. (Scarabidae : Melolonthinae) were collected by installing different coloured light traps. The coleopteran beetles were identified from Department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore - 560 065, India. This forms the first record of these three insects in large cardamom ecosystem from Sikkim region.

Two new species of Amemboa Esaki (Heteroptera: Gerridae) from West Bengal, India

Amemboa mahananda sp. nov. and Amemboa bifurcata sp. nov. are described from Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary, in the Darjeeling district and from Kalikhola, in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, and compared with all allied species. A species checklist of the genus Amemboa Esaki, 1925 and Amemboides Polhemus & Andersen, 1984 from India and their distribution in India and elsewhere is provided. Amemboa kumari (Distant, 1910) is reported for the first time from West Bengal and Amemboa dentata Polhemus & Andersen, 1984 is newly recorded from Himachal Pradesh.

Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Disease and Its Associated Risk Factors in Sikkim and Darjeeling Districts

The gastrointestinal disease accounts for a large number of deaths in several parts of the world. Gastrointestinal infection has been an emerging problem in Sikkim and Darjeeling District and also in other parts of our country. To study the prevalence and to explore the risk factors associated with gastrointestinal diseases in Sikkim and Darjeeling District. The present study is the population based descriptive type cross sectional study. The study design was based on random selection among 100 individuals from different areas of Sikkim and Darjeeling district of West Bengal. Questionnaire based anonymous feedback system was followed to collect the data. The data were analyzed using statistical tool and the relative risk was calculated. Total 65 (65%) cases of gastrointestinal disease were found in 100 individuals out of which 24 were males and 41 were females. Cases of diarrhea, gastroenteritis, dysentery, food poisoning, amoebiosis and enterocolitis was 34, 18, 3, 3, 1 and 0% respectively. The statistical analysis reveals that a gastrointestinal disease is more prevalent in females as compared to males and in the age group between 15 and 25 years. The various associated risk factors for gastrointestinal disease which was observed during the study were frequency of diet, diet type, consumption of spicy food, fermented food, smoking, consumption of alcohol, consumption of fruits available in market and an inappropriate sanitary condition.