Danish King Research Articles

DIE DÄNISCHEN KÖNIGE ALS LEHNSHERREN DER HERZÖGE VON POMMERN (1325–1438)

Medieval Denmark´s great period of expansion in the Baltic Region lasted from the middle of the 12th century to the battle of Bornhoved in Holstein in 1227. Before the middle of the 12th century the Danish Realm expanded into Northern Germany including the Duchy of Pomerania. The dukes of Pomerania were vassals of the Danish king. But also after the military defeat of Bornhoved, parts of the duchy belonged to Denmark, namely the Principality of Rugen. Documents in the Danish National Archives in Copenhagen prove that the Danish fiefdom of the Principality of Rugen lasted at least until 1438.

Communications

Communications Prof. Dr. Thomas Müller-Bahlke, Prof. Dr. em. Hermann Wellenreuther, Associate Professor Edward E. Andrews, Neal Salisbury, and Jared Ross Hardesty To the Editor: The author of "Tranquebar: Charting the Protestant International in the British Atlantic and Beyond" in the January 2017 issue of the William and Mary Quarterly (vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 3–34) is to be highly commended for his rigorous effort to claim the small fortress in southwest India called Tranquebar for those wonderful English missionaries bent on converting the non-Christian world. After briefly describing efforts at Christianizing Native Americans and comparing these efforts with Dutch mission enterprises in the East, as well as some modest references to late eighteenth-century attempts by the East India Company to bring the word of God to the unbelieving in Asia, the author claims that the efforts in bringing Christianity to the people on the Coromandel coast were chiefly initiated, funded, and directed by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, based in London, with the energetic support and help of Congregational and learned clergymen such as Cotton Mather in Boston, Massachusetts. Thus in this author's view the glorious and pious efforts of British missionaries were extended from New England in the West to Tranquebar in the East for the glory of the Lord. It is a nice story. The only trouble with this story is that it starts out with a wrong idea about the founding of the mission activities at Tranquebar, mistaking the laudable efforts of Cotton Mather in collecting money for a missionary enterprise as proof that the Christian British Atlantic extended to the Indian Ocean with the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in the middle as the guiding force. As scholars who have worked on Atlantic missions for a number of decades, we ask ourselves, of course, how such a major blunder could have happened and why probably the finest American scholarly journal for the early modern period and a distinguished list of readers were unable to discover the wrong premises on which the author based his analysis. On the surface the author seems to have done his homework. Impressive footnotes document his learning and his efforts to buttress his case with a large number of publications. And for those scholars who only read English texts, his case no doubt is persuasive and convincing. Only scholars who are familiar with studies that extend to missionary work outside the British field will immediately notice the wrong premises on which the study is based. The implication of what we have pointed out in the last two paragraphs is simple: obviously the author is totally unfamiliar with Danish- and German-language scholarship on eighteenth-century missionary activities. That shows already in his few remarks on the Moravian Church. But his [End Page 815] lack of knowledge of contemporary European scholarship becomes really catastrophic when we look at what he has to say about Tranquebar. Lest we are accused of being specious, let us hastily add that the author overlooked not only key publications on Tranquebar in German and Danish but also those published in English. The most important publication on Tranquebar without any doubt is Halle and the Beginning of Protestant Christianity in India, edited by Andreas Gross, Y. Vincent Kumaradoss, and Heike Liebau.1 This publication is well-known in the Atlantic world, has been reviewed in many leading scholarly journals (but not of course in the William and Mary Quarterly), and is available in leading American libraries as well as British and European ones. The New York Public Library holds a copy, and the College of William and Mary's Swem Library holds at least one journal in which this publication has been reviewed. The story is simple and straightforward: the Danish trading company, with the active support of the Danish court, established a trading post on the Coromandel coast. The Danish king's clerical advisers, who maintained close relations with Halle and August Hermann Francke, suggested that the Danish king's desire to establish a Christian mission in the trading post be realized by asking Francke to select two Protestant German clerics who would at the expense of...

Od grodu książęcego do rezydencji prepozyta kapituły. Lubin w XI–XVI wieku

Lubin is situated on the south-western edge of Wolin island, just at the Szczecin Lagoon and mouth of the Stara Świna River to the Baltic Sea. From the locality are known seven archaeological sites dated to the Middle Ages: stronghold, cemetery and five settlements (fig. 1). The central place in this settlement complex was occupied by stronghold, situated on a high moraine hill adjacent to the Lagoon (fig. 2), which in the past created the possibility of control over the major water transport route, which was the Świna River connecting the Szczecin Lagoon with the Baltic Sea. The results of excavations carried out in the years 2008–2011 in Lubin along with older discoveries and written sources created a basis for settlement reconstruction of the stronghold hill in the Middle Ages and the early post-medieval period, its functions changing over time and conditions of these transformations. The oldest traces of settlement on the hill in the Middle Ages can be dated to the end of the 9th century or the first half of the 10th century. However, as late as in the second half of the 11th century it was fortified by construction of ramparts. The stronghold, built back then most likely by early state authority forming in this part of Pomerania, was to ensure control over the important communication route, and at the same time to become a regional administration, religious, and with the adjacent settlements, probably also an economic centre. In 1124 Lubin was one of centres visited by Bishop Otto of Bamberg during his first Christianization mission in Pomerania. At that time the St Nicolas church was erected in the stronghold. Relics of this wooden temple and formed next to it cemetery were discovered in 2009–2011. Probably as early as in the first half of the 12th century Lubin also became an important point in the structure of territorial organization of the Duchy of the West Pomerania, as centre of an administrative unit ( provincia ). The end of its importance was its capture and destruction in the eighth decade of the 12th century by Danish King Valdemar I. Shortly afterwards, in 1186 or 1187, duke of Pomerania granted the cathedral chapter in Kamien the stronghold with the whole district and the church. In the 13th century in place of former stronghold still functioned the church, serving parish function, and the cemetery. In the next century, however, a complete change in the hill spatial organization occurred: the church was moved to the neighbouring hill, the former fortifications were levelled, and soon after a towerhouse was built, which became the seat of the provost of the cathedral chapter in Kamien during his visits to Lubin. The building was not of defensive character, and its erection in this place could have been influenced by the view of the Szczecin Lagoon. The building was demolished as late as at the end of the 16th century, after the Lubin estate return to dukes of Szczecin.

In Service to a Danish King: Comparing the Material Culture of Royal Enslaved Afro-Caribbeans and Danish Soldiers at the Christiansted National Historic Site

ABSTRACTNew archaeological research inside the Christiansted National Historic Site in St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands, has uncovered a wealth of cultural resources around the Danish West India and Guinea Company Warehouse that have lasting implications for the largely Afro-Caribbean descendent Crucian community living in St. Croix today. Following a stump removal, exposing the remains of a Danish military stock warehouse containing 3,152 artifacts, two excavations targeting the dwelling spaces of royal enslaved Afro-Caribbeans recovered over 4,000 artifacts within the same warehouse structure. This new research brings into focus the daily lives of the enslaved Afro-Caribbean peoples residing within the walls of the Danish West India and Guinea Company Warehouse in service to the King of Denmark. The project also brings attention to the lives of the Danish officers who carried out their operations in the same space. This article explores the relationship between these two groups.

Possible Reasons for the Beginning of Book Printing in Russia: Some Preliminary Notes – О возможных причинах начала книгопечатания в России

This article examines the factors that influenced the creation of the first Russian (so-called “anonymous”) printing press around 1553. The article shows that the first attempts to introduce printing took place as early as the 1540s (as seen in the Hans Schlitte mission and in a letter from Ivan IV to the Danish King Christian III). Thus the Sloglav Council (1551) or the conquest of Kazan (1552) could not be the immediate reasons for the introduction of printing in Russia. The direct reason was the need to standardize church service books. The article argues that the production of printed books in Russia also greatly accelerated as a result of the fire in Moscow in 1547, which destroyed an enormous quantity of books in the libraries in the capital. The capacities of the existing scriptoria in Moscow at the time were insufficient to restore quickly the large quantities of books lost in the fire. It became necessary to employ new methods for replacing the lost books (first and foremost, liturgical books). This study is based in a wide range of sources, including materials connected with the so-called “Viskovatyi Affair,” chronicles, the Tale of the Moscow Fire of 1547, the Book of Degrees, marginalia and other inscriptions found in some books, inventories compiled by the scribal staffs in chanceries, the colophon of the 1564 Apostol, and other sources.

A Look Behind the Scenes

From the 4th – 7th of July 2016, the annual International Medieval Congress was held in Leeds, England. Among the many different sessions two specifically addressed historical European martial arts. The first session discussed and commented upon modern practices and interpretations of historical European martial arts, each paper being based on good practice and the proper criteria for academic research. The second session, in which this paper was presented, went more “behind the scenes”, discussing the importance of thorough analysis of the historical context which remains essential to forming a foundation for solid hypotheses and interpretations. This article discusses and sheds light upon Danish historical martial art during the reign of the Danish King Christian IV (r.1588 to 1648). At this point in time Europe consisted of many small principalities in addition to a few larger states and kingdoms. Thoughts and ideas could spread as quickly as ripples in water but also be bound by political and religious alliances or enmities, plague, famine and not to mention the role also played by topographical and cultural differences. Thus, at times, vast cultural differences could be seen from region to region. To this should be added a wide range of social factors, such as the role of relationships and mentalities, and the obeying of unspoken norms and codes which can also affect modern researchers’ interpretations of what is shown or described. Therefore, the aim of this article is to provide a series of “behind the scenes” examples which all have the potential to affect hypotheses, interpretations, and overall understandings of the context of historical European martial arts.

A Look Behind the Scenes: Danish Renaissance Martial Arts during the Reign of Christian IV

Abstract From the 4th – 7th of July 2016, the annual International Medieval Congress was held in Leeds, England. Among the many different sessions two specifically addressed historical European martial arts. The first session discussed and commented upon modern practices and interpretations of historical European martial arts, each paper being based on good practice and the proper criteria for academic research. The second session, in which this paper was presented, went more “behind the scenes”, discussing the importance of thorough analysis of the historical context which remains essential to forming a foundation for solid hypotheses and interpretations. This article discusses and sheds light upon Danish historical martial art during the reign of the Danish King Christian IV (r.1588 to 1648). At this point in time Europe consisted of many small principalities in addition to a few larger states and kingdoms. Thoughts and ideas could spread as quickly as ripples in water but also be bound by political and religious alliances or enmities, plague, famine and not to mention the role also played by topographical and cultural differences. Thus, at times, vast cultural differences could be seen from region to region. To this should be added a wide range of social factors, such as the role of relationships and mentalities, and the obeying of unspoken norms and codes which can also affect modern researchers’ interpretations of what is shown or described. Therefore, the aim of this article is to provide a series of “behind the scenes” examples which all have the potential to affect hypotheses, interpretations, and overall understandings of the context of historical European martial arts.

The Danish Fate of Two German Collections Pieces of the Baron von Häckel and C. L. von Hagedorn Collections Rediscovered

Abstract The article aims to cast new light on two important collections of paintings in eighteenth-century Germany and how they ended up (complete or in part) in Danish ownership. The fate of the Hagedorn collection is well studied, yet extremely few pieces of the collection have so far been identified in modern collections. Two such paintings – both of them among Hagedorn’s favorite pictures – are published here. The 1763 sale of the collection formed by Baron von Häckel is equally well known, though it has escaped everyone’s attention that a further 75 paintings were separated from the rest and presented to the Danish king. About half of these pictures can still be found in the Statens Museum for Kunst in Copenhagen.

Food Policing in Early Modern Danish Towns

This article explores the efforts of early modern authorities to provide food security in three different Danish towns in order to understand the goals and methods of early modern food policing. As in other European countries, urban authorities were expected as part of the regulation called ‘the police’ to control the guilds and fix the prices on bread, meat, beer and other life necessities in order to avoid scarcity among the urban poor. In 1682–83 the Danish king established a police force in Copenhagen and the other market towns. The goal of the metropolitan police was to increase the population of the capital and thus increase the military-fiscal power of the absolutist state, by providing food security and even a comfortable life. In practice, the vigilant policing of bakers, butchers and brewers proved difficult. The positive economic effect of food policing was doubted early on and was reduced as a means to avoid food riots at the end the 18 th century. In a major provincial market town like Aalborg, the food trade was policed in a similar manner by the town council and the police, but especially the intermediate trade proved difficult to stop. In a tiny, agrarian market town like Saeby, food policing was more a question of feeding the poor with the town’s own products.

Mordet i Finderup Lade og det tabte Pergamentcodex – eller Jagten på den Forsvundne Skat

Svend Clausen: The Murder in Finderup Barn and the vanished Parchment Codex, or Raiders of the Lost Manuscript
 In 1286 the Danish King Erik Klipping was murdered under mysterious circumstances in a barn in Finderup, Jutland. This murder has become one of the most iconic events in Danish history and its mysteries remain unsolved. The following year some apparent perpetrators were proscribed. Most of these were powerful Danish noblemen and the Royal official Lord High Constable Stig became the most notorious of these. The sentence has been heavily debated.Already during the 1500s and early 1600s these events were described by contemporary Danish historians. Their versions of events have generally not been deemed important as it was believed that they had their knowledge solely from sources still available today.This article, however, shows that historians of this age actually did possess a now lost parchment manuscript that most likely contained the source material from the original trial following the murder. The existence of this so-called Constable Stig-manuscript has been forgotten until now, but its existence can actually be verified with certainty from manuscript lists from this age – most clearly in a manuscript list from 1595. The manuscript is also mentioned in handwritten notes by Anders Sørensen Vedel, one of the renowned historians of that age. In footnotes he made references to this manuscript, because he used its textual contents for his historical works.Apparently the Constable Stig-manuscript is also mentioned in 1608, maybe then for the last time, and at some point after this it was lost and forgotten about. Likely it burned in 1728 together with the rest of the university library. Sadly, none of its most likely important textual contents survives today. Even a debate in the 1950s regarding the source material for this murder ultimately failed to bring this lost manuscript into renewed focus.Even though its source material remains sadly lost, the existence itself of this manuscript is still important: First of all, the existence of such a manuscript shows that an actual trial must have been held in the aftermath of the murder. Even this has seemed somewhat unclear, because of the scarcity of the preserved source material. Finally, the existence of this manuscript forces us to begin looking at the works of these old historians in a different way. In the coming years it will be important to examine the preserved historical works and manuscripts of these historians thoroughly to reveal whether this can shed any new light upon any of the lost source material from the Constable Stig-manuscript.

Dansk i danske samlinger. Om Udenlandske Danica i det 20. århundrede

In the National Collection of printed works in the National Library of Denmark and Copenhagen University Library, primarily collected through Legal Deposit, one finds also works published abroad, dealing with Denmark and Danes, the so-called Danica extranea. These have been collected since 1788 when instructions, written to the new director of the library, ordered him to purchase works dealing with all the Danish states and colonies and their subjects. At that time the Danish king ruled over Denmark, Norway, the Duchies (Schleswig-Holstein) as well as colonies in India, Africa and the Caribbean. This kingdom was reduced 26 years later following the Treaty of Kiel in 1814 when Norway was ceded to Sweden. In 1864, the Duchies became part of the emerging German Empire.According to the instructions of 1788, this should also have influenced the acquisition of Danica extranea. However, this was not the case. The staff of the Danish Department (established in 1780) of the library retained until 1991 the image of Denmark as it had been before 1814 when it came to defining what should be purchased for the national collection. The article describes how this was formulated and carried out in practice during the second half of the twentieth century. The Department operated with three categories of Danica extranea: extranea proper, non-extranea (works on areas and people who had at one point in time belonged to Denmark or had been Danish subjects), and Scandinavica (works on Scandinavian countries and people, unless dealing exclusively with Sweden). This was confusing for people using the library, for example they had to look for Norwegian books published after 1814 in the Danish catalogue and not in the foreign, catalogue, and it created internal conflicts in the library when books purchased for general circulation were withheld in the national collection because of their subject matter and then could only be used in the Reading Room. The issue was resolved in 1991 when acquisitions of non-extranea and Scandinavica became the task of the University Department and purchases of duplicate copies was made possible in case of any conflict. The introduction of an online catalogue in 1998, into which all separate card catalogues were merged made it easier for users to find a book.

Professional Seamen: A Strategic Resource during the Scanian War, 1675–1679

On 1 July 1677, the Danish navy won a decisive victory over a superior Swedish fleet in the bight of Koge. This success was partly due to trained seamen, who had been recruited in Amsterdam and manned the Danish men-of-war. Another professional seaman was the admiral Cornelis Tromp, who had been employed by the Danish king, not only for his skill and talent as a naval commander, but also because his very presence in Baltic waters had a deterrent effect on the Swedes. This article assesses these experienced seamen and argues that they were skilled craftsmen, who were just as important a resource for the success of a navy as big ships and heavy guns. So important, in fact, that the naval authorities were willing to pay relatively high wages to secure the expertise of professional seamen.

“Måske vil vi engang glædes ved at mindes dette”. Om Giacomo Castelvetros håndskrifter i Det Kongelige Bibliotek

“Måske vil vi engang glædes ved at mindes dette”. Om Giacomo Castelvetros håndskrifter i Det Kongelige Bibliotek

Suscipere digneris : Et fund og nogle hypoteser om Københavnerpsalteret Thott 143 2º og dets historie

Suscipere digneris : Et fund og nogle hypoteser om Københavnerpsalteret Thott 143 2º og dets historie

Danish Troops in the Williamite Army in Ireland, 1689–91, by Kjeld Hald Galster

The army with which William III defeated James II at the Boyne in 1690 was multinational. It included Dutchmen, Huguenots and a Danish contingent which initially numbered about 7,000 men, and made up about 15 per cent of William’s forces at the Boyne. The Danish king, Christian V, had a larger army than his small kingdom could support, so was more than willing to hire out some of it to William: in that way the soldiers would be paid and would gain valuable experience. The Danes also fought in the bloody battle of Aughrim in 1691 and took part in the two sieges of Limerick. After the treaty of Limerick, the Danes travelled with the rest of William’s army to Flanders, where they saw more active service, finally returning to Denmark after the Peace of Ryswick in 1697. The story of the Danish force in Ireland is already quite well known to non-Danish-speaking scholars, thanks to a translation of some of the key documents—particularly letters from its commander, the duke of Württemburg-Neustadt, published in The Danish Forces in Ireland, 1690–91, edited by K. Danaher and J.G. Simms (1962). The present volume is based on a much more extensive range of documents from Danish sources, which make it possible to produce a fuller study than in any previous work.

Fear-Mongering, Political Shrewdness or Setting the Stage for a “Holy Society”?—Wulfstan's Sermo Lupi ad Anglos

The complex manuscript transmission of the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos by Archbishop Wulfstan of York has both troubled and fascinated Anglo-Saxonists, due on the one hand to Wulfstan's position as religious leader of the English and, on the other to his role as political whistle blower on the eve of the Danish Conquest of 1016. This essay argues that the long version of the Sermo Lupi as represented in London, British Library, Cotton Nero A. i—a manuscript that apparently contains annotations in Wulfstan's own hand—stands out for its hybrid nature. It is both an eschatological homily and a politically charged address, displaying two interconnected layers of thought. These layers show that Wulfstan was mindful of the fragile political situation of 1014: with Æthelred in exile and the Danes on English soil, the Sermo was probably designed to stir English hope and resistance and to provide an explanation for the contemporary situation. At the same time, it shows an element of consolation for the English and reveals a mindset that made the Danish conquest acceptable to them, at least in retrospect. Wulfstan envisaged yet another amalgamation of a Christian people and pagan invaders, just as the Germanic tribes who had settled in England in the fifth century had been Christianized and later amalgamated with the Scandinavian intruders of Alfred's days to form a Christian society. The Sermo Lupi confirms the English as a “chosen people”, similar to the Hebrews, by means of Old Testament rhetoric. The essence of the message is that they should not despair because God would not forsake them even if Danish rule were established. This mindset smoothed the transition to an Anglo-Scandinavian society and probably contributed to the prosperous reign of the Danish King Cnut. This claim is underscored by the Cotton manuscript. It appears to be a handbook, which Wulfstan may have had compiled in his desire to reform the nation and build a “holy society” pleasing to God.

Propria manu. Om Erasmus af Rotterdams testamente og hans efterladte papirer

Propria manu. Om Erasmus af Rotterdams testamente og hans efterladte papirer

Wulfstans kodex og Schumachers liste. Om den ældste fortegnelse over håndskrifter i Det Kongelige Bibliotek

Wulfstans kodex og Schumachers liste. Om den ældste fortegnelse over håndskrifter i Det Kongelige Bibliotek

Zdobnictwo przedmiotów drewnianych z Żółtego na Pomorzu Zachodnim jako przykład tzw. pomorskiej szkoły ornamentyki skandynawsko-insularnej

Decorative art of early Middle Ages preserved on objects excavated in the area of Western Slavs is a precious source of knowledge concerning many problems of culture of those ancient communities and their mutual connections. Taking into consideration the fact of significant similarities in ornamentations appearing on stone archaeological objects from the Isle of Man and the artifacts occurring in Pomerania, the Greater Poland and Silesia, it is the least probable that the cultural phenomenon under discussion here existed as a result of absolutely independent, convergent development of decoration art in the area of Polish lands and the British Isles. Appearing of the whole complex of resemble ornamentation motifs indicates on the contrary their common source of inspiration. The problem displaced this fact in a wide scale after the recent excavations in the island of Zarańskie Lake, in Żółte settlement. What requires particular attention is a unique in Slavic scale, collection of 25 wooden spoons and several other objects, with predominance of different variations of rope knots and moreover, triangular motifs characteristic for the pattern of so called ring-chain ornamentation, expressed the most clearly in crosses forms Gosforth and Kirk Michael. Characteristic feature of wooden spoons from Żółte ornaments consists preliminarily of ribbon plaiting element, motif of a knot estimated in nine examples. In Mark Redknap’s opinion, it is one of two main, except ring-chain motif, elements of this style popular in the British Isles in the last quarter of 9th century and in 10th century. On the grounds of dendrochronological dating results it can be supposed that objects from Żółte were deposited in the lake water about a half of 11th century, i.e. after destroying Wolin by Danish king Magnus. The problem of their manufacturing is a separate issue. Ring-chain ornamentation appearing in the West Pomerania is connected with a Scandinavian workshop operating in Wolin and inspired by West Viking art in fourth quarter of 10th century or first quarter of 11th century. It cannot be excluded that a part of the objects ornamented in the stylistic, excavated on the island of Zarańskie Lake, had been made much earlier in early urban center on the Daugava River. It is more possible, however, that due to its mass appearance and relatively homogenous character of decorations we can assume local production under the influence of decorative style developed in Wolin, with e.g. the participation of artists-craftsmen coming from Wolin itself, settled in the place permanently or visiting that multifunctional settlement center being an important place of interregional exchange, temporarily.

Book Review: A Nineteenth-Century Clockmaker, Heinrich Johann Kessels (1781–1849): Ein bedeutender Verfertiger von Chronometern und Präzisionspendeluhren

A NINETEENTH-CENTURY CLOCKMAKER Heinrich Johann Kessels (1781-1849): Ein bedeutender Verfertiger von Chronometern und Prazisionspendeluhren. Gunther Oestmann (Acta Historica Astronomiae, xliv; Verlag Harri Deutsch, Frankfurt aM, 2011). Pp. 271. euro24.80. ISBN 978-3-8171-1884-7.Volume xliv of the Acta Historica Astronomiae is dedicated to the life and work of the clockmaker Heinrich Johann Kessels. Gunther Oestmann, author of this work, is a clockmaker and historian of science, whose researches in the field of history of horology, navigation, astronomy, scientific instruments and mathematical geography are well known.The volume is divided into three sections. The first deals with the life and professional achievement of Kessels. He was born in Maastricht, but very little is known of his early years. Certainly he spent some time in England where he learned the art of clock making, working in some of the most renowned workshops of the time. Unfortunately we do not know who his masters were; but he clearly developed a very high level of skill that allowed him to undertake several important works when in 1815 he moved to Paris and entered the shop of the renowned maker, Abraham Louis Breguet. In Paris, Kessels worked on the most sophisticated mechanical timekeepers then being produced, such as marine and pocket chronometers, tourbillons, and highly sophisticated clocks. There he became a highly qualified clockmaker.In Paris Kessels met the German astronomer and geodesist Heinrich Christian Schumacher, one of Breguet's clients. Their relationship played a fundamental role in Kessels's decision to move to northern Germany, first to Hamburg and in 1823 in the nearby Altona, where Schumacher had installed his own astronomical observatory. Kessels established his own workshop there, married in 1829, and became Danish citizen. The time and the conditions for founding a precision clock-making workshop were favourable. In the first half of the nineteenth century, several important astronomical and naval observatories would be founded. Many amateur astronomers were equipping their own private observatories. At the same time, important governmental geodetic surveys were undertaken and the navy as well as the commercial navigation in Denmark and in Northern Germany were fast developing. Altona and Hamburg quickly became important ports. All these activities required an increasing number of scientific instruments, especially box chronometers and astronomical regulators (clocks). Such time-keeping apparatus had to be periodically adjusted. And the Danish King Frederik IV was highly interested in astronomy and related sciences. Schumacher, who had an excellent relationship with the king and the government, could thus facilitate the development of Kessels's business and support his career.Unfortunately, information about Kessels's workshop is scarce. Presumably he had several employees. As general manager of his firm, he supervised the different types of work, personally made or completed the most delicate parts and arranged the final assemblies and tests. …