Dangerous Properties Research Articles

Study of maritime accidents with hazardous substances involved: comparison of HNS and oil behaviours in marine environment

Due to the continuous development of the chemical industry as well as the ever-increasing demand for raw materials, trend of maritime transport of chemicals and hazardous substances has significantly increased in recent decades. This growth results in a rising number of accidents involving both types of chemicals-Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNSs) and oily substances.The continuous increasing of number of hazardous substances transported by seas, was a trigger for the competent authorities to focus on the prepare and response to a possible risk of release of such substances. Even though the risk of leakage and spill of hazardous substances is currently on the low level (as a result of the high safety standards), it still does exist.The main objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the past accidents involving hazardous substances globally, with a focus on the HNS and oily substances spilled at the sea. The analysis is focused primarily on liquid substances, but also data on the packaged goods with the dangerous properties is involved. Another significant output is represented by recommendations about correct responding to maritime accidents involving chemicals and other dangerous substances.

Recognition of circus animals as a source of increased danger

Currently, there is a large number of disputes and discussions about the safety of providing circus services involving wild and dangerous animals. Removed from the environment, even a welltrained circus animal can`t be completely controlled by humans, and the presence of harmful and dangerous properties creates a great threat to both circus workers and spectators. As a result of the analysis of scientific literature and legal material, the article considers various criteria for classifying circus animals as sources of increased danger and concludes that it is necessary to recognize certain animal species as such.

The use of elder marc in the food industry

The article describes the varieties of elderberry, and the process of black elderberry fruits ripening. External characteristics of flowers, followed by ripening of fruits, have been described. The main components useful for the human body have been identified, which are contained in the fruits of the black elderberry. The effect of elderberry fruits on the human body when used for medicinal purposes has been. Elderberry fruits have a coloring substance that must be added to confectionery creams, sweets, marshmallows, as well as to liqueurs and wine products to give the products color and nutmeg taste. Elderberry fruits can be eaten fresh, ripe, but the most delicious and more useful fruits are provided in processed form, especially in juice and dried form. The useful properties of elderberry have been described, as well as the dangerous properties that appear in case of eating unripe elderberry fruits growing in the Republic of Belarus. The detailed composition of the components of elderberry fruit has been considered, all its useful properties noted. Particular attention is paid to the chemical composition of elderberry fruit, detailed amino acid composition of elderberry fruit has been given, and the composition of anthocyanin content in juice of direct extraction from elderberry fruit has been shown. The use of elderberry pomace in the food industry for the preparation of jam, jams, confiture, preserves and other products, as well as adding to wine, alcoholic beverages, to impart nutmeg taste, in the confectionery industry to add to dough and giving the product an almond smell has been described. It is especially noted that the pomace from elderberries contains biological active substances, bioflavonoids, anthocyanins, which confirms their immediate importance and the need to use for the creation of many products for preventive and functional purposes in the food industry.

Mercury Elemental Storage Tank Design

Mercury is a liquid metal that has properties such as toxic, persistent, bioaccumulating, and its vapor can spread around sources so that it is harmful to humans. Despite having dangerous properties, mercury is found in some goods, products, and also waste. Mercury is indicated to be used in several industries, such as artisanal and small-scale gold mining and coal-fired steam power plants. Based on health and environmental considerations, mercury must ultimately be removed from the eco cycle. Mercury storage systems in the long term must be solved so that sustainable development for future generations can be achieved. Currently, there is still no mercury storage system in Indonesia with a good standard design, so the conceptual design study of the mercury elemental storage system is important. In this paper, the storage tanks with a mercury capacity of 35 kilograms, one tonne, and two tonnes were designed to meet mercury storage standards. Several design criteria were used as model development, such as storage capacity, height level, safety factor material, storage temperature, tank life span, and symbols and label. The design results presented in this paper are dimension and engineering drawing of the storage tanks and attributes like spill tray, pallet, and rack.Keywords: environment; hazardous and toxic material; Indonesia; mercury; storage tanks

Modeling the effects of toxic wastes on population dynamics

The toxic and hazardous waste have dangerous properties and often cause a harmful effect on human health and the environment. Waste products generated from chemical industries and hospitals are the most classified into hazardous waste. Therefore, we are interested in modeling and analysing a dynamical system where intoxication on the population occurs due to mismanagement of such produced wastes. The model explains the relationship between the density of individuals in a certain area, waste generation and concentration of the toxic. Initially, we simulated synthetic data and estimated parameters using Least Square method. The stability analysis around critical points, bifurcation and sensitivity analysis are carried out and exhibit that once the population is growing, the generated wastes are also increasing and consequently, the concentration of toxic. Numerical model solutions through plots and fitness of the model are presented and interpretation confesses the model as accurate. From results, we recommend that, waste management and limitation in contact of the population with the toxic are the ways to reduce their effects on human beings. To address the waste disposal and synthetic substances, the new trend of green chemistry with 12 principles is the alternative solution. Moreover, to reduce the increase of toxic waste, chlorine is replaced by carbonyl group and make it friendly to the environment, ecosystem and human.

ON DETERMINING THE COAL CARBONIZATION INDICATOR FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF MINE FIRE HAZARD GROUPS

The article analyzes the dependence of endogenous fire hazards on the following factors: the degree of coalification, the total sulfur content, the thickness of the developed formations and their structure, the presence of tectonic disturbances. By the genetic propensity of coals to spontaneous combustion, three groups of coal sites are distinguished: І – Vdaf ≥ 41%, Сп ≤ 7, coals of marks D and partially G; ІІ – Vdaf = 40-30%, Сп ≤ 8, coals of marks D and partially F; ІІІ – Vdaf < 36%, Сп >8, coals of marks Zh, K, OS, T. Studies have shown that individual dependences of the decrease in the content of each component (Оo, Нo, No) significantly differ from each other. Decrease in oxygen content, as well as the sum of the main components, occurs with an increase in carbon content. The sum of the content of the main components decreases inversely to the increase in carbon content over the entire range of coal conversion from a small degree of their metamorphism (Со ≈ 70%) to anthracites (Со ≈ 98%). The dependence of decrease in oxygen content with increased carbon is nonlinear. With carbon content of more than 88%, there is a slight decrease in the rate of oxygen reduction in comparison to its decrease at earlier stages of metamorphism. Data analysis showed an almost functional dependence between the sum of the main components of the organic mass (0.995). A significant correlation of carbon with oxygen and hydrogen is observed. A significant scatter of points in experimental data is due to the diversity of composition of the source material, the conditions of its accumulation and transformation for different coal basins and individual coal sites. Studies have shown that the relationships between all the main components of the organic mass of coal during metamorphic transformations change significantly at different stages of these processes. The established dependence of the carbonization index on the carbon content at different stages of coalification allowed us to develop an engineering method for calculating the carbonization index for the entire range of coal metamorphism. The proposed method significantly clarifies the determination of the carbonization index, which is necessary not only for establishing the fire hazard of mine layers, but also for establishing other manifestations of the dangerous properties of coal sites during mining operations. Keywords: carbonization index, endogenous fire hazard, elemental composition, organic mass, metamorphism, coalification.

Dangerous and distinctive properties bias category judgments late in development.

When faced with entities with potentially ambiguous category membership, adult category judgments are strongly biased toward dangerous and distinctive properties. For example, a cyanide-water mixture is categorized as cyanide. We used a developmental approach to better understand this cross-domain effect, which we term the asymmetric categorization of mixtures (ACM). According to ACM, attention is biased toward perceived dangerous or distinctive properties, making them prominent in conceptual representation. We consider whether ACM is driven entirely by low-level processes of attention, or whether ACM might require the integration of attention with causal-explanatory reasoning. We argue that ACM requires forms of reasoning that only emerge robustly in middle childhood. Across three studies (N = 270), we find that ACM emerges only after the 7th year for liquids (Studies 1 through 3), and even later for race (Studies 1 and 3). Results are discussed in terms of competing theoretical accounts of ACM. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ ЗАКОНОДАТЕЛЬСТВ США И РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ О ГРАЖДАНСКО-ПРАВОВОЙ ОТВЕТСТВЕННОСТИ ЗА ВРЕД, ПРИЧИНЕННЫЙ ТОВАРАМИ, ОБЛАДАЮЩИМИ ПОВЫШЕННО ОПАСНЫМИ СВОЙСТВАМИ

The relevance of the consideration of the problem of civil liability for harm caused by goods with increased hazardous properties is determined by the fact that such cases occupy an increasingly important place in judicial practice. This shows that not only the legal awareness of citizens is growing, but the very definition of “goods with increased dangerous properties” does not have all the principles of specificity. In this regard, one can turn to the experience of other countries, especially those where consumer protection has proven effective. The United States is one of such countries, where not only the culture of consumption is high, but also the legal culture. This combination allows the American legal system to respond to citizens ’appeals in a timely manner and resolve issues with an objective review of cases where liability for damage caused by goods with increased dangerous properties is considered. In the United States, the definition of civil liability for manufacturers and sellers of goods and services is governed by federal and state laws. Moreover, it is the laws of the states in most cases that govern the most important aspects related to determining the shortage of goods, services and work. It should be noted the importance of the precedent in the US legal system, which also determines many cases for determining civil liability for harm caused by some properties of goods. To compare the fundamentals of the legislation of the two countries in the studied area, the comparative legal research method was applied, which allows us to highlight general and excellent legislative norms. Based on the results of the comparison, it was concluded that the similarities and differences between the American and Russian legislation in terms of civil-steam liability for damage caused by goods with dangerous properties.

Dangerous properties of polychlorinated biphenyls and environmentally sound management of PCB in Ukraine

Dangerous properties of polychlorinated biphenyls and environmentally sound management of PCB in Ukraine

On determining coal classification indicators for establishing dangerous properties of mines

Currently, more than 20 qualification indicators are known by which degree of metamorphic coal transformations are established. Most of these indicators are designed for determining technological properties with industrial use of coal in mind. Due to sufficient knowledge of the indicators used, industrial classifications are constantly being improved. The modern classification by genetic and technological parameters groups the coals by the grades based on ten indicators. Of these, only one - the mass yield of volatile substances during the thermal decomposition of coal - is used as the main indicator of the manifestation of dangerous properties of coal seams without due scientific justification. Dangerous properties of coal seams during mining include: gas content of coal, a tendency to gas-dynamic phenomena and spontaneous combustion, dust forming ability and explosiveness of coal dust. In industrial classifications, the main indicator is determined for the dry ash-free state of organic matter. Manifestation of dangerous properties of coal seams occurs in the presence of both moisture and mineral impurities. This fact is not taken into account by other auxiliary indicators used to predict the hazardous properties of coal seams. Moisture in coal seams is in at least four states, and it is completely removed while analyzing the samples and is not taken into account in volatile products of thermal decomposition of coal. Thus, when using the indicator of mass output of volatile substances, influence of moisture in any form of its presence in coal on the occurrence of emergency situations is automatically ignored. The probability of emergencies during mining is largely determined by the ratio between components of organic mass (C, O, H, S, N) and mineral impurities. It is also not taken into account in normative documents which regulate safety of coal seam mining. The classification indicators defined in different ways characterize different aspects of coal conversion in metamorphic processes. Volatiles yield and average vitrine reflectance, well studied in industrial applications, correspond to different aspects of degree of conversion of starting organic matter. In order to establish dangerous properties of coal seams, their mutual substitution is unacceptable, which is confirmed by nonlinear connection between them. The existence of a genetic relationship between the outburst and fire hazard of coal seams has been established. This indicates the need to develop a unified classification of the hazardous properties of coal seams by genetic, mining engineering and geological parameters. The scientifically substantiated use in regulatory documents of a set of classification indicators that directly characterize the manifestations of the hazardous properties of coal seams will help to reduce number of accidents and injuries in coal mines.

Reusable Rockets and the Environment

Many studies have been conducted on the environmental impact of automotive vehicles, but less research has been done on the effects of orbital launch vehicles. This literature review addresses the question, what are the environmental effects of reusable rockets? The environmental effects that are considered include pollution to the atmosphere, soil, and Low Earth Orbit in the form of space debris. Also, reusable orbital launch vehicles are specifically considered because their reduced costs could increase launch frequency. The impact of rockets in general has been difficult to quantify because rockets are not launched very often, and they mostly operate in space. Research has shown that launch prices are decreasing while their total environmental effects is unknown (Jones, 2018). However, research agrees that space debris is a considerable threat to future space activity that will only get worse, but there is no consensus as to when the problem will be too great (Noble, Almanee, Shakir, & Sungmin Park, Apr 2016; Slíz-Balogh, Horváth, Szabó, & Horváth, 2020).When considering reusable orbital launch vehicles, it is specified that these types of vehicles are rockets that can insert payloads with considerable mass into orbit around Earth or even away from Earth into deep space. There are many rockets currently operational with this capability, but only two are reusable at the time: The Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy. Unlike their conventional counterparts, these rockets do not eject and discard their first stage. Instead, they recover and reuse it. However, conventional and reusable rockets are similar because they discard their second stage after their payloads have been deployed.The research conducted in this literature review was taken from databases accessed through the UC Merced library website. They include Engineering Village, Web of Science, Sax’s Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, etc. Ten sources were referenced which were found using several key search terms including reusable, rocket*, pollution, propellant, space, debris, exploration, etc. Some of the terms were searched in combinations using key phrases like reusable rocket, space debris, rockets AND pollution, etc. Due to the limited research on the environmental effects of rockets on the ocean, it was not mentioned. For example, there were ninety-seven and fifty-eight results under the phrase rocket AND ocean, in Engineering Village and IEEE Xplore databases respectively. None of the papers had anything to do with environmental effects.

Вплив поліелементного складу батарейок на стан довкілля та визначення надійності екосистем

Здійснено класифікацію та стандартизацію хімічних джерел струму. Наведено результати паретто-аналізу показників небезпеки складу відпрацьованих алкалінових батарей. Реалізовано метод енергодисперсійного рентгенофлуоресцентного аналізу речовин. Відкориговано показники ступеня небезпеки з урахуванням частки (мас. %) кожного елемента досліджуваних батарейок та оцінено сумарні показники ступеня небезпеки поліелементного складу батарейок. Запропоновано новий підхід до оцінювання впливу не просто батарейки, як такої, а її полікомпонентного складу на стан довкілля, через визначення надійності екосистем, що дає змогу отримати кількісні показники стійкості та втрати природних екосистем, що можуть бути використані як індикатори стану довкілля, а відтак оцінки екологічної складової, важливої для визначення реального впливу поліелементного складу батарейок. В аспекті забезпечення переходу суспільства на засади сталого розвитку важливо оцінити ризики втрати, знищення екосистем, що тісно пов'язано з їхньою стійкістю. Стійкість екосистем розглянуто як здатність зберігати свою структуру і характер функціонування у просторі та часі за впливу змін умов зовнішнього середовища. На основі таких показників, які можна отримати за допомогою програмного забезпечення SimaPro, можливий розрахунок тих порогових величин, поза якими відбуваються негативні явища, прогнозування та моделювання ситуацій, картування джерел ризиків, моніторинг змін, а це дасть змогу виявити причини цих змін, або встановити чинники, що сповільнюють чи стримують наближення екосистем до критичного стану, тобто розробити превентивні заходи запобігання катастрофам. Використаний есо-індикатор 99 є одним із методів, який дає нам змогу прийняти одну оцінку для всього продукту – так званий екологічний індекс. Це сума всіх окремих еко-точок або часткових індексів для всіх процесів життєвого циклу. Обчислювальна процедура здійснюється шляхом підсумовування результатів зважування фаз життєвого циклу.

Suspect screening of glycoalkaloids in plant extracts using neutral loss – High resolution mass spectrometry

Alkaloids represent a very large and chemically inhomogeneous group of nitrogen compounds isolated from different natural sources. They have long been studied due to their specific toxicological characteristics, as some of them are suspected of having very dangerous properties, but there has still been little investigation of the existence of possible glycoside precursors in plant products. An analytical method based on a suspect screening approach using liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution tandem mass spectrometry in neutral loss (NL) mode was used for the tentative identification of alkaloid precursors. This NL approach applied to 15 plant extracts made it possible to tentatively identify 41 glycosidic precursors (4 monopentosides, 3 monodeoxyhexosides, 24 monohexosides, 1 pentoside-hexoside and 9 dihexosides) in 6 of them, belonging to the piperidine (21), pyrrolizidine (9), isoquinoline (7), indole (3) and tropane (1) alkaloid groups. This work confirms the promising investigative ability of a suspect screening approach in this complex field of study.

Problems and prospects of unifying methods to categorize industrial and consumption waste for industrial enterprises

The authors considered a problem of duality of existing approaches to classification of industrial and consumption waste in Russian Federation. The suggestions also are methodical approaches to unified method for classification of household and industrial waste, which take into account the particularly dangerous properties of individual components of waste — carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, reprotoxicity — and categorize waste into 5 classes. Preliminary calculations of jeopardy classes for an enterprise waste were carried out and additional economic costs of a large enterprise are analyzed with a new technique introduction. It is shown that for about 10% of waste types the jeopardy class will increase. An economic entity will need funds for special preparation of temporary waste storage sites with a higher jeopardy class. Environmental charges for negative environmental impact are increasing. To increase objectivity of accounting hazardous properties of waste, necessity is to form a list of chemicals with proven hazardous properties and clear identification of physico-chemical parameters of the waste components that are responsible for those properties manifestation.Increased attention to highly hazardous waste, adequate methods of collection, temporary storage, transport, disposal should lead to improvement of environment quality, reduce health risks for those in occupational contact with waste and for general population.

CURRENT APPROACHES IN THE SYSTEM LIGHTNING PROTECTION ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS IN VIEW OF FIRE HAZARD AND PERSONAL RISK

Introduction. The complexity and power of a natural phenomenon with hazardous and dangerous properties, which is lightning, should be adequately evaluated and prevented at the most accessible organizational and technical level of a particular society. According to the principle of ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) applied in post-industrial countries, this risk, like others, should be reduced to the extent that is achievable. Neglecting to take a high risk of a hazardous event leads to excessive damage and large irreparable losses that a person or community cannot achieve sustainable development. Therefore, it is the complex, systematic approach in achieving safety, from the stage of assessment, to take into account both the characteristics of hazards, including fire in the relevant facilities, as well as personal, individual risk of death or injury.
 Purpose. Concerning to the situation with the systematic approach to technical regulation in Ukraine of such a safety sector as lightning protection, it is precisely this neglect that does not correspond to the current potential of the industrial, scientific, regulatory and social development levels. The purpose of this article is to analyze this problem in several areas. The state of technical regulation shows the priority of bringing normative documents into compliance with the legislation.
 Methods. Application of various methods of calculation, estimation, design and layout of the system allows realizing lightning protection system of buildings, equipment and people. To this aim, comparative characteristics of the passive and active lightning protection systems offered on the market are given; protective angle, rolling sphere, geometric methods of direct impact intercepting are compared.
 Results. Lightning is an unpredictable natural event; no one in the world is fully understand the mechanism of lightning, it is impossible for any standardization to provide 100% protection in all circumstances. In this view no liability shall attach to IEC and any other publications. Consideration of the implementation of the protection system grounded part is postponed with the condition of its full compliance with the selected components and the configuration of the system as a whole. System calculation of protection and assessment of the individual risk level is impossible without the internal elements and links in lightning protection system. A number of identified gaps in regulatory documents, the relationship between regulatory and supervisory bodies, users requests are suggested in the conclusions. The analysis of active normative and technical requirements to the lightning protection systems is conducted and the necessity of additional protective measures from the direct strike of lightning or voltage induction by a remote discharge by protective measures choice and charts of their setting is determined. On this basis the schemes of application of lightning protective systems from impulsive overvoltage are complemented, that substantially reduces the risk of fires and individual injures.
 Conclusion. The statistics of death and injury from lightning hazardous factors, losses from property, buildings and structures damages confirms that in the risk assessment, which is standardized in DSTU EN 62305-2, it is necessary to introduce a methodology that complies with the conditions of Ukraine. Further application in the design of lightning protection systems of the national standard ДСТУ Б.В.2.5-38:2008 went beyond the technical regulation system of Ukraine. Arrangement of system lightning protection depends on: risk assessment, owner response, and influence of regulatory and supervisory bodies. Criteria for fire hazard of a facility require a more complete analysis by the supervise bodies and the owner, the methodology of which has not been implemented for today. The development of such criteria is carried out in the workgroup 1 of the Technical Committee 315, which involves the scientists of the LSULS.

Neutralization of cement-asbestos waste by melting in an arc-resistance furnace

The paper presents the results of research on asbestos waste disposal by the melting process. The tests were carried out in a laboratory arc-resistance electric furnace. The obtained results showed that the fibrous structure of asbestos contained in cement-asbestos waste was completely destroyed. This led to the formation of new mineral phases without dangerous properties. The melting test was conducted on raw cement-asbestos samples without any additives and with a content of mineral compounds, the aim of which was to support the melting process. The additives were selected among others on the basis of the computer simulation results carried out using FactSage database computing system. The research results indicate that the melting process of asbestos wastes is a potential and interesting method of neutralizing hazardous asbestos waste, which allows for further treatment and material recycling.

Phytoestrogens in the treatment of menopause

In previous centuries many women did not even live until their menopause years due to poor economic conditions, deficiencies of medicine, epidemics and wars. Nowadays in the developed countries, people live until they are 75-80 years old, and with the expansion of average age, the number of people affected by menopause and the years spent in that state increase. Nowadays women spend one third of their lives in the menopausal stage. The only effective way to treat unpleasant symptoms for centuries was with the use of herbs, and the knowledge about them spread through oral tradition. In the 20th century, this therapeutic form was pushed into the background by the development of synthetic drug production and the introduction of hormone replacement therapy. Thanks to the influence of media in the 20th century, women began to have the social need for preserving their beauty and youth for as long as they could. Hormone replacement therapy enjoyed great popularity because women were temporarily relieved of their life quality-impairing menopausal symptoms, but years later it turned out that hormone replacement therapy could pose serious risks. A distinct advantage of herbal therapy is the more advantageous side-effect-profile opposite the used synthetics in hormone replacement therapy. Women are therefore happy to turn to valuable and well-tried natural therapies, which have been used for thousands of years. There is growing interest in herbal remedies. Studying the effects of phytoestrogens has now become an active area for research. However, the results of studies in animals and humans are controversial, some sources suggest that phytoestrogens are effective and safe, other authors claim that they are ineffective in menopause or they have particularly dangerous properties, and cannot be recommended to everyone. It is important to address this issue for the sake of health, mental health and safety of women, and so it is necessary to assess the benefits and the risks before applying them. Orv Hetil. 2017; 158(32): 1243-1251.

Characterisation of waves via the Lax–Wendroff method

In recent years, the problem of rogue waves has been a topical issue among oceanographers because of their dangerous and unpredictable properties, leading to safety demands for ships and offshore platforms. Even with efforts to physically quantify the mechanism of rogue wave generation within the last two decades, rogue wave events are still unpredictable, as the rogue wave mechanism has not yet been fully explained, both mathematically and physically. This study investigates whether a Lax–Wendroff method-based algorithm with the wave action equation can characterise a 2-dimensional regular wave group over deep water. The Lax–Wendroff method up to a second-order approximation was applied to the wave action equation and the formulated algorithm was validated by means of experimental data, which consisted of a measured local regular wave group (wave frequency: 1.6 Hz, wave amplitude: 0.54 cm). The model consists of a computational algorithm which can describe a spatial evolution of wave frequencies (radian frequencies) and envelopes in the time domain with second-order accuracy, when the initial values at the first position are provided. As a result, the Lax–Wendroff method-based algorithm characterised an evolution of the regular wave group up to 4.5 m, implying that the Lax–Wendroff method-based algorithm could be a promising mathematical formulation in the understanding and characterisation of rogue wave formation, providing a further insight into a linear focusing mechanism. In the future, the results of this study will be extended to investigate the validity of the Lax–Wendroff method-based algorithm in finite water depth.

Ammonium Nitrate Temperature‐Programmed Decomposition on Fe–Zeolite Catalysts: Effect of Deposition Method

AbstractThe N2O formation during NOx selective catalytic reduction by NH3 is often attributed to NH4NO3 intermediate decomposition. Thermal decomposition of NH4NO3 has been extensively studied owing to the combination of its wide use as fertilizer and its dangerous properties. However, the decomposition of NH4NO3 in the presence of a catalyst has generated less attention. The decomposition of NH4NO3 may yield NxOy‐type products such as NO, NO2, N2O, N2 as well as HNO3 and H2O. This work focuses on the emissions of N2O. The deposition of NH4NO3 onto a Fe–zeolite catalyst was carried out by dry impregnation, by using a dilute solution of NH4NO3, and by a mechanical mixture. In the absence of catalyst, the release of N2O strongly depends on the conditions of the experiment (static or dynamic). The presence of a catalyst and the method of mixing ammonium nitrate into it affects its decomposition. Nitrogen formation is much more significant for the impregnated sample. For the mechanically mixed sample, the ammonium nitrate is mainly decomposed into N2O and NO2. N2O from ammonia oxidation was also detected in the presence of a catalyst.

INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE SWELLING AND THE SHRINKAGE OF THE CLAY AND THE LOESSIAL SOILS

The article considers the character of the interrelationship between the relative swelling and the volumetric shrinkage of the clay and the loessial soils. The possibility of their adequacy (accordance) or antagonism (contradiction) was estimated. Examples are given from the practice of engineering surveys in Turkey (Ankara clays), Russia (eolian clays, the city of Nevinnomyssk in the North Caucasus) and the USA (forecasting the swelling of clayey soils, Oklahoma), which show the need for simultaneous study of these dangerous properties and elucidation of the factors of their manifestation. The results of experiment and investigations were presented for three objects: the proluvial loessial soils (p III–IV) of the lithological section Desyatnikov (Buryatia); the lacustrine clays (l III–IV) of the test hole 45-b (Primorye, the area of the lake Khanka); the clays of the Jurassic coal-bearing formation (engineering geological boreholes on the survey area, the microdistrict Topkinskiy, c. Irkutsk). The programs «Standard statistics» and «Cluster analysis» of the R-type microstructural parameters were determined by the method of «Microstructure», the composition of clay minerals — using X-ray diffraction analysis. The absence of interrelations between swelling and shrinkage is confirmed by the results of the experiment under conditions of a change in the moisture content of the paste samples (alluvial clay soils), the data for determining these indices for proluvial loess-like sandy loams and cohesive sands of the Desyatnikovo (Buryatiya) section and the clay of the Jurassic coal-bearing formation (Irkutsk). The manifestation of the correlation of swelling and shrinkage was established only for lake clays from the area of Fr. Khanka (Primorye), enriched with smectite. It is shown that the main factors of swelling of clayey and loess soils are the composition of clay minerals, the degree of aggregation (the number of aggregates), the actual content of the fraction < 0,002 mm, the content of primary (free) fine-fine sand (0,25–0,05 mm) particles; as well as shrinkage with the listed swelling factors, is most likely not connected, which is, apparently, the reason for the discrepancy in the manifestation of these physicochemical properties; to determine the degree of danger of the soil strata in connection with swelling or shrinkage, it is necessary to determine the value of these indicators in the course of engineering surveys in laboratory conditions on duplicate samples.