Damage Characteristics Research Articles

Physics-driven deep neural networks for damage identification using guided wave damage interaction coefficients

In this paper, recent advancements in the development of a guided wave-based damage identification approach using wave damage interaction coefficients (WDICs) and deep neural networks (DNNs) are presented. These WDICs uniquely describe the complex scattering of guided waves around possible damages and depend on the properties of the damage itself. Hence, they are utilized as physics-based and highly sensitive damage features herein. It is demonstrated, that DNNs can effectively learn intricate relationships between damage characteristics and complex-shaped WDIC patterns from a compact sized training dataset. In this study, two training datasets are created by numerical finite element simulations and experimental scanning laser Doppler vibrometer measurements using a pseudo-damage approach. Therefore, the orientation and thickness of surface-bonded artificial damages are varied to generate the training data of 12 selected damage scenarios. The generalization capabilities of the fully trained DNNs allow to accurately predict WDICs even for damage scenarios unseen during training. The presented damage identification method leverages this powerful ability to characterize properties of unknown damages. Once trained, the accurate DNN predictions become available promptly and can be compared with measured WDICs from an unknown damage for selected sensor positions. The performance of both simulation-based and experiment-based structural health monitoring approaches are assessed, while also addressing current limitations and possible enhancements. For example, the great potential of incorporating the phase information of the complex-valued WDICs in the identification procedure is discussed. Hence, this study highlights the latest advancements in the development of the presented damage identification method with promising results and provides valuable insights in the application of WDICs as physics-based features for DNNs.

An introductory review on the common brown leafhopper (Orosius orientalis): A new soybean pest

Soybean pests are one of the major factors limiting yield improvement. With the expansion of area and changes in cropping patterns, a number of new pests have been identified in the main soybean production areas of China. The common brown leafhopper, Orosius orientalis, is a new pest associated with soybean stay-green virus that has been discovered on cultivated soybean crop in the Yellow-Huai-hai region of China in recent years. The polyphagous insect has a wide feeding range and infests a variety of important grain and cash crops. This paper presents the basic information, geographical distribution, hosts, damage characteristics, plant virus transmission, occurrence patterns, and prevention and control measures O. orientalis. This review also provides insights into integrated prevention and control of the genus Orosius as an insect vector.

Effects of temperature on fracture and damage characteristics of deep granite

Investigating the fracture- and failure-related behaviors of rock that is subjected to temperature treatment is important for handling warm rock reservoirs during deep mining of hot dry rock and processing high-level radioactive waste. In this study, we use the semi-circular bending test in combination with acoustic emission (AE) monitoring technology to examine the characteristics of fracture and damage in granite treated at different temperatures and under different fracture modes at a depth of 750 m in the Daliuhang Gold Mine in China. The results showed that the peak load and fracture toughness of granite decreased to varying extents when it was treated at increasingly higher temperatures. The high temperature substantially reduced the bonding capacity of the particles of rock, and led to the formation of a large number of microcracks that dislodged the particles of rock along the edges of the samples. The changes in the AE counts during the different loading phases can be categorized into stabilization, increase, sudden increase, and decay stages. The damage-related variable based on the cumulative AE count revealed that samples treated at and below a temperature of 300 °C were mainly damaged in the late period of loading and exhibited brittle failure. Damage began to accumulate as early as in the middle period of loading in samples treated at temperatures greater than or equal to 600 °C. The results of this study provide a useful reference for mining deeply buried granite under different temperature gradients and fracture modes.

Quantitative characterization of fatigue damage in plate structures based on FSOM

For the problem of fatigue damage detection and damage degree assessment of plate structures, a quantitative damage assessment method based on the fast self-organizing feature mapping (FSOM) algorithm is proposed in this paper. The damage detection problem is transformed into a binary classification problem by extracting multidimensional damage features of the Lamb wave signal in plate to be detected and selecting damage sensitive features. Then, the FSOM network is used to identify the health state of the plate to be inspected, and the damage index is obtained by fusing the damage sensitive features using FSOM to quantitatively evaluate the damage level of the plate to be inspected. Simulation and experimental results show this method has a good dynamic tracking capability for the fatigue damage evolution of aluminum and composite plates, and can achieve quantitative assessment of fatigue damage of plate structures.

Multiple-stage dynamic responses and failure behaviors of surrounding rocks subjected to development blasting: Exponential and triangular paths

During the development blasting of circular tunnels, the detonation of multiple blastholes arranged on concentric circles induces a complex dynamic response in the surrounding rocks. This process involves multiple blast loadings, static stress unloadings, and stress redistributions. In this study, the dynamic stresses of the surrounding rocks during development blasting, considering multiple blasting-unloading stages with exponential paths and triangular paths (linear simplified paths of exponential paths), are solved based on the dynamic theory and the Fourier transform method. Then, a corresponding discrete element model is established using particle flow code (PFC). The multiple-stage dynamic stress and fracture distribution under different in situ stress levels and lateral coefficients are investigated. Theoretical results indicate that the peak compressive stresses in the surrounding rocks induced by both triangular and exponential paths are equal, while the triangular path generates greater additional dynamic tensile stresses, particularly in the circumferential direction, compared to the exponential path. Numerical results show that the exponential path causes less dynamic circumferential tensile damage and forms fewer radial fractures than the triangular path in the first few blast stages; conversely, it exacerbates the damage and instability in the final blast unloading stage and forms more circumferential fractures. Furthermore, the in situ stress determines which of the two opposite effects is dominant. Therefore, when using overly simplified triangular paths to evaluate the stability of surrounding rocks, potential overestimation or underestimation caused by different failure mechanisms should be considered. Specifically, under high horizontal and vertical stresses, the static stress redistribution with layer-by-layer blasting suppresses dynamic circumferential tensile and radial compressive damage. The damage evolution of surrounding rocks in multi-stage blasting under different in situ stresses is summarized and classified according to the damage mechanism and characteristics, which can guide blasting and support design.

Influence of heating temperature and time on mechanical-degradation, microstructures and corrosion performances of Teflon/granite coated aluminum alloys used for non-stick cookware

This study explores the functional characteristics (erosion, corrosion, mechanical damage, and microstructural features) of non-stick cookware made from aluminum alloys. Typically coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE-Teflon) or ceramic for non-stick properties, we conducted a systematic investigation using corrosion, abrasion, and mechanical tests on six types of cookware from different manufacturers (Manuf-1-6). The cookware was heated at various temperatures [Room temperature (RT), 100, 175, 250, & 350 °C] and times (45 & 120 min). Tests included Taber wear, Adhesive Pull-off, hot & RT corrosion, and surface roughness measurements. Characterization involved optical microscopy, scanning electron microscope (SEM) with electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD), and x-ray diffraction (XRD). Ceramic-coated cookware from Manuf-4 demonstrated superior mechanical strength, wear, and corrosion resistance due to refined microstructures. Manuf-1's PTFE-coated cookware also performed well. Optimal results were observed when heating below 250 °C for up to 45 min. Prolonged heating and temperatures beyond 250 °C adversely affected internal structures of all cookware. Thus, it is advisable to use Al-based non-stick cookware below 250 °C for a maximum of 45 min.

I-SUM: Integrated Smart Ultrasonic Monitoring

iSUM (Integrated Smart Ultrasonic Monitoring) System is an integrated embedded ultrasonic guided-waves-based system consisting of methodologies and algorithms performed over data obtained by iSUM_ES devices to obtain damage detection, positioning, and characterization . i_SUM_ES device ruled by ISUM_SW performs tests and transmits the collected data to the controller device where it is processed . Through algorithms and AI models developed “ad-hoc” for each field of application, iSUM_APP provides clear, concise, and easily interpretable information of the current state of structures. iSUM System allows structural integrity inspection tests to be carried out by a minimally trained operator. It can also run scheduled tests autonomously and deliver alerts, reports, data raw on-demand or in the case of structural damage detection . This system aims to provide useful information about the most typical damages on engineering structures, reducing the time of inspection, and avoiding systems of complex installation and operation. Moreover, their use is intended to reduce inspection costs during manufacturing and operation, increasing the quality, safety, and durability of the systems composed of the target structures. This paper presents the industry needs that motivate this development, the system architecture, and the applications for which it has been conceived.

The antioxidant protective effect of resveratrol on long-term exposure to acrylamide-induced skeletal toxicity in female mice.

Acrylamide (AA) is a toxic substance formed when cooking starch-based foods at high temperatures. Studies have shown that AA can cause neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity and so on. However, there remains limited understanding of the potential skeletal toxicity of AA. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential skeletal toxicity of AA, as well as the potential bone protective effects of Resveratrol (RVT). Based on the daily intake of adult women, adult female mice was treated with AA at 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1 mg/kg/d or AA/RVT (1 mg/kg/d AA +10 mg/kg/d RVT) for 8 weeks, and skeletal toxicity were evaluated by RT-qPCR and histopathological techniques. The results found that exposure to AA (0.1 or 1 mg/kg/d) after 8 weeks, osteogenesis exhibited pathological damage characteristics such as inhibition of growth plate function, and reduction of fibrous tissue, and cartilage exhibited pathological damage characteristics such as irregular cell morphology and arrangement, and damage to the tidal line. The results of cellular functional gene testing showed a decrease in the expression of functional genes in osteoblasts and chondrocytes. Meanwhile, after further co-treatment with AA (1 mg/kg/d) and resveratrol (RVT) (10 mg/kg/d), we found that RVT restored AA-induced damage to osteogenesis and cartilage, and reduced the high apoptosis and oxidative stress levels in osteogenesis/cartilage after AA exposure. In summary, this study confirmed the skeletal toxicity of AA on female adult mice, and further clarified the antioxidant protective effect of RVT on this toxicity.

Insulin attenuates LPS-induced cognitive impairment and ferroptosis through regulation of glucose metabolism in hippocampus.

Neuroinflammation is a recognized contributor to cognitive disorders like Alzheimer's disease, with ferroptosis emerging as a novel mechanism underlying cognitive dysfunction associated with neuroinflammation. Insulin, pivotal in the central nervous system, holds promise for cognitive function enhancement. This study aimed to establish a cognitive impairment model through intracerebroventricular injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and explore the impact of intracerebroventricular insulin injection on cognitive function in mice. We employed diverse experimental techniques, including animal behavior testing, molecular assays, targeted metabolomics, nuclear medicine, and electron microscopy, to assess neurodegenerative changes, brain insulin resistance (IR), glucose uptake and metabolism, and ferroptosis. The model of cognitive impairment was induced via intracerebroventricular injection of LPS, followed by intracerebroventricular administration of insulin to evaluate its effects. Insulin treatment effectively mitigated LPS-induced cognitive decline and safeguarded against neuronal degeneration. Furthermore, insulin alleviated LPS-induced insulin resistance, enhanced glucose uptake in the hippocampus, and promoted the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) production. Additionally, insulin activated the glutathione (GSH)-glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) pathway, reducing lipid peroxidation, and mitochondrial damage characteristic of LPS-induced ferroptosis in the hippocampus. Our findings underscore the therapeutic potential of insulin in alleviating LPS-induced cognitive impairment and ferroptosis by modulating glucose metabolism. This study offers a promising avenue for future interventions targeting cognitive decline.

Lining Structure of Water Conveyance Tunnel under Earthquake Action Research on Damage Law

Based on the concrete damage plasticity constitutive model (CDP model) of ABAQUS software, the dynamic response of high pressure internal water conveyance tunnel during earthquake is simulated, and the dynamic response and dynamic damage law of high internal water pressure water conveyance tunnel structure under surrounding rock grade, buried depth and seismic wave intensity are analyzed. The research shows that the surrounding rock grade is closely related to the dynamic response and damage characteristics of the lining structure of the water conveyance tunnel. The dynamic damage of the tunnel under grade Ⅲ surrounding rock is only 0.08, which is far less than 0.83 under grade Ⅳ surrounding rock. It can be considered that it will not cause great damage to grade Ⅲ surrounding rock under earthquake. The surrounding rock grade is better, which can provide more stable support and reduce the stress and vibration of the structure. If the tunnel is in the seismic zone, the buried depth can be used as one of the design control indexes in the tunnel design. The lining damage is mainly distributed at the top and upper arch waist of the tunnel. With the increase of the buried depth of the tunnel, the dynamic damage amount increases from 0.021 to 0.081, then to 0.085. the damage of the lining structure also increases. This may be because the deep buried tunnel is more constrained by the underground rock and soil layer, thereby reducing the transmission of seismic load. The change of seismic wave intensity can directly affect the damage characteristics of tunnel lining structure. The dynamic damage mainly occurs at the vault and arch waist, and the damage area expands from the vault and arch waist to the side wall and corner. The increase of seismic wave intensity will lead to dramatic changes in the stress of the structure, which will lead to more complex and serious damage.

Investigation on the effect of freeze–thaw cycles on damage characteristics of concrete under mixed mode I-II load conditions

In order to investigate the effect of freeze–thaw cycles on the damage characteristics of mixed mode I-II crack propagation in concrete. The three-point bending and three-point shear fracture test were carried out on specimens subjected to different freeze–thaw cycles (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200). The analytical expression of mixed mode I-II damage scale r0(I,II) and ru(I,II) was derived, and the effect of freeze–thaw cycles on damage scale was analyzed. In addition, the critical damage scale of mixed mode I-II fracture was obtained using the numerical simulation method, and the simulation results were compared with the calculation results. Finally, the accumulate energy and tension-shear failure of concrete after freeze–thaw cycles were analyzed based on acoustic emission technology.

Effect of Parasteron on In Vivo Atherosclerotic model with Functional and Tissue Damage Mitigation

Background: Atherosclerosis, a leading cause of cardiovascular diseases, involves the buildup of plaques within arterial walls, leading to functional and tissue damage. Animal models, particularly rabbits, have been instrumental in studying this disease due to their lipoprotein metabolism and sensitivity to a cholesterol diet, similar to humans. The current study aims to evaluate the effects of the steroid hormone parasteron on the functional and tissue damage caused by atherosclerosis in adult female rabbits. Methods: The study was conducted over six weeks on four groups of adult female rabbits. The first group served as the control, while the second group was administered cholesterol to induce atherosclerosis. The third and fourth groups were treated with both cholesterol and the steroid hormone parasteron. Various parameters related to atherosclerosis, including functional metrics and tissue damage, were monitored and analyzed. Results: The control group showed no signs of atherosclerosis or tissue damage. The cholesterol-only group exhibited significant functional impairments and tissue damage characteristic of atherosclerosis. In the groups treated with parasteron, there was a notable reduction in both functional impairments and tissue damage compared to the cholesterol-only group. The extent of protection provided by parasteron was assessed through histological and biochemical analyses, which revealed a marked improvement in arterial health and function. Conclusion: The administration of parasteron significantly mitigates the functional and tissue damage associated with atherosclerosis in adult female rabbits. These findings suggest the potential of parasteron as a therapeutic agent in the management of atherosclerosis. Further research is warranted to explore the underlying mechanisms and to evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of parasteron in larger clinical settings.

Biological Deterioration of Wooden Components of Balla Lompoa Ri Galesong in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Balla Lompoa Ri Galesong, known well as the traditional house of the Takalar Regency, South Sulawesi, has become a historical building in Indonesia. Nowadays, it still functions as a residence for the royal family, a repository for historical artifacts, and a venue for annual cultural performances. Maintaining and protecting buildings from damaging factors is crucial to maintaining their life and function. This research focuses on detecting the damage characteristics of wooden parts of buildings, identifying biological deterioration agents, and assessing the level of infestation. Data collection uses the visual detection method. The results showed that the activities of biodeterioration agents, namely subterranean termites (Microcerotermes serrula), drywood termites (Cryptotermes), powder-post beetles, wood-staining fungi, and wood-decaying fungi found on pillars, windows, doors, walls, floors, and ceiling. Most pillars are targets of attacks by wood-destroying organisms, characterized by the highest attack intensity (70.13%) and the moderate category in the degree of attack (50–74). Understanding and mitigating the damage to historic buildings is critical for implementing effective preventive measures. Keywords: Balla Lompoa Ri Galesong, biodeterioration agents, cultural heritage, wood biodeterioration

Study on temporal and spatial response of pressure stimulated current induced by coal deformation and rupture

The pressure stimulated current (PSC) signal emitted during the deformation and fracture processes of coal and rock materials holds significant importance for monitoring dynamic disasters in coal mines. However, the spatial response characteristics remain inadequately explored, posing significant challenges to the identification of risk-prone areas for underground dynamic disasters. To study the temporal and spatial response characteristics of PSC signal, the PSC response experiment in the failure process of raw coal under load was carried out, PSC signals from various spatial positions of coal were collected throughout the loading process. The results show that the sudden increase of axial PSC and the sudden decrease of transverse PSC appear with the sudden increase of acoustic emission (AE) hit rates, which is the main characteristic of the aggravation of coal internal fracture degree. The PSCs are closely related to the damage characteristics of the sample in terms of its corresponding position and drop time, which can better reflect the fracture concentration location of the coal sample. Building upon this foundation, the paper explained the internal factors contributing to variations in PSC spatial response characteristics of coal samples during load failure and emphasizes the inhibitory effect of crack development on PSC changes.

Experimental study on anti-clamping damage structure of drill pipe against slip-crushing

Deep ground conditions bring higher challenges to drill pipe and slip tools, and the slip is more likely to seriously bite or crush the drill pipe, which will easily lead to failure of the drill pipe, seriously affecting the safety of drilling operations. Based on the theoretical analysis of the mechanical behavior and damage characteristics of the drill pipe held by slips, the deep ground suitability test of API-S135 conventional drill pipe and S135 and V150 anti-slip crushing drill pipe combined with micro-teeth marks hydraulic slips with thickened slip holding area is carried out. The test results show that: Compared with S135 common drill pipe, S135 and V150 anti-slip crushing drill pipe have an average change in outside diameter of 43% and 0.19%, with a reduction of 8.31% and 4.9% in the proportion of the maximum depth of the tooth mark, both of which have good mechanical resistance to slip crushing and biting, and the tensile load capacity of the clamped pipe body has been significantly improved. Combined with micro-tooth mark slips, the slips in deep drilling operations can tighten the drill pipe and make the bite damage of the drill pipe less. It can effectively ensure the safety and efficiency of deep drilling operations.

The use of piezoelectric coupling in structural monitoring as a feature robust to EOV

The use of piezoelectric materials is becoming more and more attractive in many different fields such as mechanical, civil, aerospace, etc. Indeed, their special features and light weight allow introducing them in structures and systems without causing significant load effects and allowing their use to the purpose of many different tasks, such as vibration control, structural monitoring, energy harvesting, etc. The present paper analyses a new approach for exploiting piezoelectric elements for structural monitoring. The main idea is to use an estimate of the coupling between the transducer and the structure. This coupling represents the efficiency of the energy conversion between the hosting structure/system and the piezoelectric element (either bender or stack). Its estimate can be obtained by differential measurements of modal parameters. Due to its estimation procedure, the coupling is shown being a feature robust to possible environmental and operating condition variations, without any need of training a detection algorithm with all the possible environmental and operational conditions. The paper explains at first why the piezoelectric coupling is able to evidence the presence of a structural damage or alteration. Then, it is shown that the proposed damage feature is robust to environmental and operational variability, which constitutes one of its main merits. Finally, the results of an experimental campaign aimed at confirming the main theoretical points presented in the paper are discussed.

Predicting subsurface inclusion initiated butterfly-wing cracking under rolling contact fatigue

Wind turbine (WT) gearbox bearings experience premature failures. Damage characterisation of failed bearings has shown that subsurface micro cracks and butterfly-wing cracks are associated with non-metallic inclusions in the bearing raceways. The existing studies are unable to predict crack propagation under rolling contact fatigue considering shakedown and ratchetting when the material around an inclusion experiences sufficiently high levels of stresses. In this study, a finite element (FE) damage model based on the Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) is developed, integrated with the modelling of plastic deformation and kinematic hardening when the material around inclusion is subjected to alternating tension and compression. Two damage types of manganese-sulphide inclusions are investigated, showing significant effects of inclusion boundary separation and internal cracking on the subsurface RCF crack evolution. The modelling results also show that higher surface traction, overloads and varied loading sequences, commonly experienced by WTs in operation, have significant effects on the increase of the subsurface butterfly-wing crack lengths, because of early crack initiation and accelerated crack propagation. The developed CDM FE model has shown its effectiveness in predicting the damage evolution to gain new insights of complex interactions of a number of critical factors that can lead to the premature failure of bearings.

Fatigue performance and damage characterisation of ultra-thin tow-based discontinuous tape composites

Tow-cased discontinuous composites are an attractive alternative material to conventional continuous composites as they offer in-plane isotropy, enhanced manufacturability allowing to achieve complex 3D shapes with high curvatures and local reinforcement in critical areas, while also maintaining high strength and stiffness, therefore expanding the design space significantly. In addition, the use of ultra-thin tapes and optimised manufacturing methods can increase the mechanical properties even further and change the damage mechanisms. Fatigue, however, could be a limiting design factor, as the fatigue behaviour of these materials has not been fully characterised. This work presents a complete study on the fatigue response of ultra-thin tow-based discontinuous composites: fatigue S-N curves are measured, and the damage and failure mechanisms are characterised utilising optical and scanning electron microscopy. Finally, a critical interpretation of the results is also presented by comparing the performance of ultra-thin tow-based discontinuous composites against other similar fibre reinforced composites and metals. It is shown that the optimised manufacturing methods combined with low tape thickness leads to enhanced quasi-isotropic fatigue performance. In addition, the fatigue limit was raised significantly compared to other discontinuous composites, and the tow-based discontinuous composites outperformed their metal counterparts when the results were normalised with density.

Insight into local defect resonance and its in-situ measurement based on flexible nano-composite sensors

The local defect resonance has been proven to be effective for damage detection, and the methods based on LDR for damage evaluation have demonstrated appealing capabilities of selective assessment and applicability to complex structures. To explain the generation of LDR, models based on vibration theories have been developed in which the defect boundaries are assumed to be fixed. Nevertheless, existing models can only give an accurate prediction of frequency for fundamental LDR mode owing to the deviation of their assumptions from the reality. In addition, the measurement of LDR is currently limited to noncontact technologies, hampering its application to in-situ and online monitoring of inspected structures. To overcome these deficiencies, an analytical model is proposed in this investigation to gain an insight into the generation of LDR from the perspective of wave reflection at defect boundaries and wave superposition. In this model, the interaction of guided waves with defect is scrutinized using a normal mode expansion method to obtain the phase shift of the reflected waves at the defect boundaries. On this basis, the formation of standing waves is analyzed to interpret the occurrence of the resonance of guided waves, whereby the relation of the LDR frequencies and the defect parameters can be obtained. On top of this analytical investigation, the sensing of the LDR using a novel nano-composite sensor is attempted. Flexible and lightweight, these sensors can form a dense sensing network, with which the LDR response in the inspected region can be perceived. Using the LDR-based method and nano-composite sensors, this approach can give a damage characterization in an in-situ and online manner for complex structures. Experimental validations of the proposed approach is performed in which delaminations in composite structures are identified and assessed using the LDR response perceived with the nano-composite sensors.

Damage characteristics and mechanical properties of CRTS III track structure in curved sections under longitudinal uneven subgrade settlement

This paper first presents a CRTS III track structure (TS) model specifically designed for curved sections, highlighting its adjustable superelevations feature that enhances adaptability to various high-speed railway curve profiles. The model considers the distribution of steel bars within the TS, concrete damaged plasticity, as well as contact nonlinearity. Afterward, the intricate impacts of longitudinal uneven subgrade settlement (LUSS) position (7 positions), amplitude (5–30 mm), wavelength (5–30 m), and TS superelevation (15–175 mm) on structural damage, stress, deformation, and interlayer gap are studied. The findings reveal that: 1) Under different LUSS positions, the concrete base (CB) experiences the most severe damage, particularly on its thick side. For the TS with 175 mm superelevation, in the wavelength range of 10–20 m, the maximum damage value of CB exceeds 0.9 when LUSS amplitude reaches 20 mm. With the movement of LUSS position, the main damage position of CB changes obviously. When the concrete stress reaches the tensile strength, the steel bars located in adjacent positions progressively assume the primary role in load-bearing. 2) The influence of LUSS on TS deformation and interlayer gap is inevitably associated with the distance between settlement center and expansion joints. Interlayer gaps vary among structural components, which are primarily distributed near settlement center, expansion joints, and settlement edges. 3) As the amplitude increases, both CB and self-compacting concrete layer (SCCL) damage are aggravated. Increasing wavelength initially causes damage to increase, then decrease, and 10–20 m is the most unfavorable wavelength range for most cases. 4) The effect of superelevation on TS damage is complex, varying with structural components and settlement characteristics. In most cases, as superelevation increases, the damage to CB increases, whereas the deformation decreases.