Daily Travel Distance Research Articles

Fandangles and Other Measures of Incidental Trips

The concept of trip incidentality is examined, with trip incidentality defined in terms of the effect on total daily travel distance of removing (or not recording) specific activities from the daily set of activities. Four measures of trip incidentality are proposed and applied to a travel survey data set collected in Brisbane, Australia, in 2004. Several findings concerning the measurement of daily travel are of importance. Although trip rates have traditionally been used to measure daily travel, it is shown that 50% of trip stages could be removed from the data set, and only 20% of travel time, 8% of trip-stage distance, and 3% of trip chain distance would be lost. These findings question the robustness of using trip rates as the primary means of measuring daily travel patterns, especially when the data are to be used in the development of transport network models. The extent of trip incidentality is further explored as a function of several trip and activity characteristics. It is found that activities are less likely to be incidental if they are for work, education, or recreation purposes and are more likely to be incidental if they are at the end of a public transport trip stage or during peak periods. They appear unaffected by the length of the trip stage preceding the activity but are highly influenced by the duration of the activity itself, with shorter-duration activities being much more likely to be incidental.

Costs of twins in free-ranging white-bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) at Tinigua National Park, Colombia

A female spider monkey (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) that gave birth to twins was studied during 13 months, and her activity budget and diet were compared to those of females with single offspring and females with no offspring to assess selective pressures that could influence litter size. We recorded qualitative information on the development and social interactions of the twins and three other single infants. Emi, the female that had the twins, had the highest proportion of resting time and the lowest proportion of feeding and moving time compared to other adult females and males. Emi also had the lowest average daily travel distance and relied more heavily on flowers and leaves than other group members who included a higher proportion of fruits in their diets. These results suggest that twins are energetically costly to spider monkeys because of the direct energy allocated into raising and carrying the twins and, also, because these costs have direct effects in the ability of a mother to obtain high-quality resources (e.g., fruits). The twins had a slower rate of physical and social development as well as a smaller body size compared to same-aged singletons by the end of the study. Thus, the extended periods of maternal care and the costs associated with rearing and carrying offspring are some of the factors that influence the evolution and maintenance of a litter size of one in most anthropoid primates.

Car ownership, travel and land use: a comparison of the US and Great Britain

This paper conducts an international comparative analysis of relationships between car ownership, daily travel and urban form. Using travel diary data for the US and Great Britain, we estimate models of car ownership and daily travel distance. Both a structural model with daily travel conditional upon car ownership and a reduced form model for daily travel, excluding car ownership, are estimated. Model results are similar, and show that differences in travel are explained by (1) differences in demographics between the two countries; (2) lower household income in Great Britain; (3) country specific differences in costs of car ownership and use, transport supply and other factors we have not been able to control. We find that metropolitan size affects travel only in the largest metropolitan areas of the US. Daily travel distance is inversely related to local population density, but the effect is much stronger for the US than Great Britain. We conclude that higher transport costs in Great Britain promote economizing behavior, which in turns leads to more consumption of local goods and services and more use of alternative transport modes.

Locomotor Physical Activity During United States Army Basic Combat Training

PURPOSE Digital electronic pedometers (Yamax Digiwalker SW-200) were used to survey locomotor physical activity during an entire 9-week U.S. Army Basic Combat Training (BCT) cycle. METHODS Pedometers were worn on the hips of 4 trainees in each of 10 BCT companies during all BCT activities. Pedometer readings (steps) were recorded by the investigators on a daily basis and travel distances were estimated by multiplying steps by average step length measured for each participant. If a trainee forgot to wear the pedometer at any point in the day, did not train with their company during the entire day (determined by a questionnaire), or had a lost or broken pedometer, that reading was not included for that day. RESULTS Of the 2,440 pedometer-days (4 pedometers/ company, 10 companies, 61 days), there were 2,038 pedometer-days with acceptable readings (84%). Trainees performed an average±SD of 16,311±5,826 steps/day and traveled an estimated 11.7±4.4 km/day. Men ambulated 4% more than women (16,662±6,347 vs. 15,916±5,065, p < 0.01). The highest daily locomotor activity was recorded during a 3-day field training exercise in which trainees took an average±SD of 22,372±12,517 steps/day, traveling 16.2±9.7 km/day. There were differences in locomotor physical activity among the 10 companies ranging from 14,720±6,649 steps/day in one company to 18,729±6,328 steps/day in another (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS This survey provided the first examination of ambulatory physical activity during an entire BCT cycle and quantifies the amount of locomotor physical activity performed.

Ranging behavior of the mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: a test of the ecological constraints model

The ecological constraints model predicts that daily travel distance and home range size of social animals will increase as group size increases in order to meet the dietary needs of additional group members. This theory has been supported more predominantly by studies of frugivorous primate species than by studies of folivorous species. We examined the ranging patterns of mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, who include both herbaceous vegetation and fruit in their diet, to determine how ecological, behavioral, and social parameters influence movement patterns. Data were collected from three groups of gorillas with overlapping home ranges at a low-altitude location (1,450–1,800 m) and one group at a high-altitude location (2,100–2,500 m) in Bwindi from September 2001 to August 2002. We analyzed daily travel distance and home range size in relation to group size, while also considering patterns of frugivory, rainfall, and location (proxy for food availability) within the park. Both daily travel distance and home range size were positively related to group size. In addition, the degree of frugivory positively influenced daily travel distance and home range size, while rainfall negatively influenced daily travel distance only. Finally, groups at the low-altitude location, with higher fruit availability, traveled less than the group at the high-altitude location. These results demonstrate that mountain gorillas in Bwindi provide support for the ecological constraints model, but further studies are needed to determine how fine-scale spatial and temporal availability of food resources influence movement patterns. Ranging patterns of Bwindi gorillas are compared to those observed in other gorilla populations in the context of the ecological constraints model.

Effects of annual change in group size, human disturbances and weather on daily travel distance of a group in Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhi-nopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia Nature Reserve, China

Effects of annual change in group size, human disturbances and weather on daily travel distance of a group in Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhi-nopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia Nature Reserve, China

Foraging Behavior and Activity Patterns of Alouatta caraya in the Northeastern Argentinean Flooded Forest

Howling monkeys (Alouatta spp.) are colonizer species, showing a plasticity in behavior that allows them to inhabit different sorts of forests. There is a series of hypotheses relating demography to behavioral and ecological characteristics of howlers: (1) as howler density increases, home range size will decrease; (2) howler groups occupying small home ranges will have a high proportion of leaves in their diet; and, (3) the proportion of mature leaves in the diet is negatively correlated with group daily travel distance. To test hypotheses about howler diet and ranging pattern in relation to food resources, we studied the foraging ecology and general activity patterns of 2 groups of black howlers (Alouatta caraya) inhabiting in flooded forest of Parana River (Argentina), the habitat with the highest density recorded for Alouatta. We found, in addition to the highest densities, also the smallest home ranges for Alouatta (Group I: 1.7 ha and Group II: 2.2 ha). However, diet was not dominated by leaves, and high quality items—flowers, fruits, new leaves—were a high proportion of the diet all year. Also, daily travel distance is not correlated with the proportion of mature leaves in the diet, but is positively correlated with the number of group confrontations. Finally, we propose a model integrating and interpreting our results as a function of the spatial and temporal distribution of high quality food resources in the Argentinean flooded forest.

The seasonal daily travel in a group of Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Pygathrix roxellana) in Shennongjia Nature Reserve, China.

The seasonal daily travel of a group of snub-nosed monkey (Pygathrix roxellana) was investigated using the group's straight-line distance method. The group was followed from dawn to dusk for 30 consecutive days during each season to encompass all aspects of daily travel patterns. The results showed that in Summer and Autumn, the mean daily travel distance (m) was significantly longer than in Winter and Spring. There was no significant difference in the mean daily travel distance between Summer and Autumn or between Winter and Autumn. The mean travel distance (m/hr) during daytime was significantly higher in Summer and Autumn than in Spring, and in Autumn than in Winter. The travel of the group in all seasons had similar patterns. Traveling showed morning and afternoon peaks, with a rest period at the noon in a day. Seasonal food availability, length of daytime, and mean travel distance (m/hr) during daytime might have contributed to the different daily travel distances in different seasons.

Territory Characteristics among Three Neighboring Chimpanzee Communities in the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire

We studied territory characteristics among three neighboring chimpanzee communities in the Tai National Park, Cote d'Ivoire, and compared them with other chimpanzee populations. We characterized territories and ranging patterns by analyzing six variables:, (1) territory size, (2) overlap zone, (3) territory utilization, (4) core area, (5) territory shift, and (6) travel distance. Data collection covered a period of 10 mo, during which we simultaneously sampled the local positions of mostly large parties, including males in each community, in 30-min intervals. In Tai, chimpanzees used territories in a clumped way, with small central core areas being used preferentially over large peripheral areas. Although overlap zones between study communities mainly represented infrequently visited peripheral areas, overlap zones with all neighboring communities also included intensively used central areas. Territory utilization was not strongly seasonal, with no major shift of activity center or shift of areas used over consecutive months. However, we observed shorter daily travel distances in times of low food availability. Territory sizes of Tai chimpanzees tended to be larger than territories in other chimpanzee communities, presumably because high food availability allows for economical defense of territorial borders and time investment in territorial activities. Therefore we suggest, that use of territory in Tai chimpanzees is strongly influenced by intercommunity relations. To understand differences in territory characteristics between various populations, it is of major importance to consider not only the intracommunity but also the intercommunity context.

Differential habitat utilization by patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) and tantalus monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops tantalus) living sympatrically in northern Cameroon.

In order to obtain reliable evidence for differences in habitat preferences between two closely related savanna-dwelling primate species, namely, patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) and tantalus monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops tantalus), I collected data on vegetation and patterns of range use concurrently at a single study site, Kala Maloue, Cameroon, in a similar manner for a group of each species. Kala Maloue consisted of 64% grassland mostly dominated by Gramineae spp. and the rest was woodland. Tantalus monkeys showed preference for woodland, especially gallery forest, much more than did the patas irrespective of the season. Moreover, patas preferentially established their home range in grassland in the wet season. Interspecific and seasonal differences in habitat preferences could be interpreted on the basis of interspecific and seasonal differences in preferences for main food. In dry season, tantalus utilized water-containing areas at a frequency closely in proportion to the availability of such areas while the patas utilized water-containing areas more frequently than expected. This is because tantalus established a smaller home range along the river where water was never completely depleted throughout the dry season. Both the patas and the tantalus preferred woodland to grassland as sleeping sites possibly owing to predation avoidance. Both the daily travel distance per group weight and the home range size per group weight were greater for patas than for tantalus partly because of higher preference for grassland with low habitat quality in the case of patas. It is suggested, however, that high locomotive ability enabled patas to effectively utilize small and widely dispersed items of food such as grasshoppers and to explore areas with high availability of food and water and with preferable sleeping sites.

Home range structure and inter-group competition for land of Japanese macaques in evergreen and deciduous forests

The per capita home range area of Japanese macaques,Macaca fuscata, is significantly smaller in evergreen forest than in deciduous forest, though a corresponding difference in food resource utilization patterns has never been described. The present study compared the home range utilization pattern of Japanese macaques living in two habitats: the Yakushima population inhabits an evergreen forest, while the Kinkazan population inhabits a deciduous forest. We found that in the Yakushima population, (1) food density was higher; (2) inter-feeding bout sites distance was shorter; (3) daily travel distance was shorter; (4) home range size was smaller; and (5) the unit value of the main home range was higher, than in the Kinkazan population. Yakushima groups utilized a small home range area intensively, compared to Kinkazan groups. We also found that a Yakushima group shared 24% of its main home range with neighboring groups, though a Kinkazan group shared only 10% with other groups. It is supposed that food distribution affects daily ranging pattern, and ultimately the social relationships between groups in Japanese macaques.

Social Organization and Range Use in the Yunnan Snub-Nosed Monkey Rhinopithecus bieti

We studied social organization, behavior, and range use of the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Wuyapiya (99°12′E, 28°30′N, the People's Republic of China) over 12 months between May 1992 and June 1994. The Wuyapiya band contained ≥175 members and had two levels of social organization. At one level, the monkeys formed multifemale, one-male units (OMUs) similar to those of many other colobines. At another level, 15 to 18 OMUs traveled together in a cohesive band. Unlike the bands of other species of Rhinopithecus, the Wuyapiya band of R. bieti did not show seasonal fission–fusion, although some social behavior, such as male–male aggression, was seasonal. With regard to range use, the Wuyapiya band had a large home range and long daily travel distances compared with other colobines. Minimum range size in 1 year at Wuyapiya is 16.25 km 2 , although there is no asymptote for range size as a function of observation time. Range size for the Wuyapiya band is 25.25 km 2 over the 2-year study and appeared to cover 100 km 2 between 1985 and 1994. The primary food of R. bieti at Wuyapiya is lichens, which are ubiquitous in fir trees. The multitiered social organization of R. bieti appears to result from the interaction of food resource characters with the forces of mate competition, with band sizes based on female responses to the spatial and temporal characteristics of lichens and subdivisions within bands based on male competition for mates.

Seasonal Variation of Locomotion and Energy Expenditure in Goats under Range Grazing Conditions

Energy cost of various activities can be used in conjunction with direct field observations to estimate energy expended in the daily activities of free-ranging animals. The objective of this study was to estimate the energy expenditure due to locomotion of goats on open range. The study was carried out at the 130-ha Los Pajares pilot zone, located in the Filabres mountain-range, Almeria. Average elevation is 865 m above sea level. The area has a Mediterranean climate. The mean annual precipitation is 324 mm. The average daily temperatures range from 8.9 degrees C in January to 23.0 degrees C in August. The landscape is characterized by woody plants and perennial grasses. The experimental flock was grazed on its customary routes for 2 days during 4 seasons. The goats were released to graze during the day and then returned to an enclosed shed. Direct observation was used to simulate the total distance walked, the vertical ascent or descent, and to quantify other grazing activities. The energy expenditure of locomotion was calculated from the horizontal and vertical components of travel and the corresponding costs, which had been previously obtained by calorimetry. Daily travel distances by goats on range fluctuated from 5,763 m in summer to 3,482 m in autumn, with an annual average of 4,295 m, which represents a mean speed of 10.8 m/min. The mean annual vertical ascent or descent was 168 m. Estimated heat production due to locomotion ranged from 56.9 to 34.8 kJ/kg(0.75) per day in summer and autumn respectively. These values account for an increased energy requirement at pasture above maintenance of 14.2 and 8.7%, respectively.

The evolution of bipedalism in hominids and reduced group size in chimpanzees: alternative responses to decreasing resource availability

One hypothesis for the evolution of hominid bipedalism is that bipedalism was more efficient than quadrupedalism for long-distance terrestrial locomotion, and was favored when resources became scarcer and more widely separated during the drying of African forests in the Miocene. Here we extend this scenario for the evolution of bipedalism based on principles of behavioral ecology of extant primates. Daily travel distance is not only an increasing function of resource scarcity, but also of group size (because of intragroup scramble competition). When faced with Miocene drying, hominoids were forced to evolve either energetically more efficient locomotory abilities or smaller group sizes. The cost of the latter strategy is that smaller groups are less successful than larger groups in intergroup contest competition (smaller groups are supplanted from limiting resources). Among the earliest hominids, bipedalism may have been favored over small group size as an alternative energetic response to decreased resource availability. The alternative was to maintain quadrupedal locomotion but evolve fission–fusion grouping to reduce daily travel distance for individuals and hence, their energetic costs of travel. We suggest that this strategy represents the evolutionary pathway taken by chimpanzees. This divergence of strategies may have been a result of inherent differences in feeding ecology, but could also have been enhanced by the pre-empting of niche space by the two closely related and presumably competing hominoid ancestors of humans and chimpanzees. If so, it could have been a potential factor in the speciation process that led to modern humans and chimpanzees.

Milk transportation routes management

Efficient milk pick-up routes were developed with the help of a vehicle scheduling model for transportation of milk from the milk shed area to the plant. The data were collected from a composite milk plant purposively selected from North-West India. Monthly transportation route planning was done separately for milk assembling and milk chilling centres. The various conditions and restrictions typically found in India were considered for the routes system. On average, the trucks and tankers taken together were travelling about 1014 km per day in the existing milk pick-up system. The efficient routes formulated reduced the daily travel distance to 954 km, a saving through rationalised routes of about 6% (60 km per day). This showed that the existing route system of the plant, which was also most of the time on a circular path, was reasonably good and could further be improved by efficient route planning.

Behavioural responses of lynx to declining snowshoe hare abundance

The behavioural responses of lynx (Lynx canadensis) to declines in snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) abundance were examined in the southwestern Yukon. Between April 1982 and June 1984, 11 lynx were radio tagged and monitored in and near the Kluane Game Sanctuary. Lynx home range size increased from 13.2 to 39.2 km2 concurrent with a decline in snowshoe hare abundance from 14.7 to 0.2 hares/ha. Below about 0.5 hares/ha, several lynx abandoned their home ranges and became nomadic, although they remained within the general study area. Lynx concentrated their foraging efforts in areas of relatively high snowshoe hare abundance and abandoned these areas after hares declined. Straight-line daily travel distance remained constant at 2.2−2.7 km/day above 1.0 hare/ha. Below 1.0 hares/ha, straight-line daily travel distances increased rapidly, reaching 5.5 km/day at 0.2 hares/ha. Three of seven radio-tagged lynx dispersed 250 km or more from the study area during the 1982 period of rapid hare decline. No similar long-distance emigrations were recorded after hare densities stabilized at less than 1.0 hares/ha. Trapping mortality was responsible for the loss of seven of nine radio-tagged lynx that travelled outside the game sanctuary. One lynx probably starved during the winter or spring of 1984. The high rate of trapping mortality outside the game sanctuary suggests that refugia in wilderness areas are important in maintaining lynx populations during periods of low recruitment.

Behavioural responses of lynx to declining snowshoe hare abundance

The behavioural responses of lynx (Lynx canadensis) to declines in snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) abundance were examined in the southwestern Yukon. Between April 1982 and June 1984, 11 lynx were radio tagged and monitored in and near the Kluane Game Sanctuary. Lynx home range size increased from 13.2 to 39.2 km2 concurrent with a decline in snowshoe hare abundance from 14.7 to 0.2 hares/ha. Below about 0.5 hares/ha, several lynx abandoned their home ranges and became nomadic, although they remained within the general study area. Lynx concentrated their foraging efforts in areas of relatively high snowshoe hare abundance and abandoned these areas after hares declined. Straight-line daily travel distance remained constant at 2.2−2.7 km/day above 1.0 hare/ha. Below 1.0 hares/ha, straight-line daily travel distances increased rapidly, reaching 5.5 km/day at 0.2 hares/ha. Three of seven radio-tagged lynx dispersed 250 km or more from the study area during the 1982 period of rapid hare decline. No similar lo...

Feeding ecology of mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) in campo animal reserve, Cameroon

A field study on the ecology of mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) was carried out for 28 months in Cameroon. Fresh food remnants and large quantities of fresh feces were collected by following the groups. Analyses of these products indicated that fruit (including seeds), monocotyledonous plant leaves and insects (especially ants and termites), were frequently eaten. Mandrills mostly ate the plant and animal foods in the lower forest stratum and on the ground. Fallen seeds and monocotyledonous plant leaves were eaten more frequently in the minor fruiting season than in the major fruiting season presumably to compensate for the shortage of fresh fruit during the former. Daily travel distances were shorter during the minor fruiting season than during the major fruiting season, because in the minor fruiting season mandrills forage for small food items, such as the new leaves and piths of monocotyledons and fallen seeds which are sparsely distributed on the ground, while in the major fruiting season they search for widely distributed food such as fruit. The daily pattern of group movement and a food intake experiment suggest that mandrills move and feed continuously throughout the day. Use of fallen seeds and monocotyledonous plant leaves appears to enable mandrills to maintain a terrestrial life in the tropical rain forest. The feeding and ranging characteristics of mandrills are basically similar to those of other baboon species in open land, though their environments differ extremely.

Patterns of Range Use by the Green Monkey, Cercopithecus sabaeus, at Mt. Assirik, Senegal

Details of range use by one of Africa’s most common super-species of primate, Cercopithecus aethiops, are little publicised. This paper reports on the environmental and social influences on ranging behaviour in a single group of green monkeys, C. sabaeus, studied for 15 months in the Pare National du Niokolo-Koba, Senegal, West Africa. Various ranging parameters were measured, including daily travel distances, speeds of movement, monthly range sizes, and differential patterns of range use in both space and time. Range use is shown to have been determined by the availability and distribution of important species of fruit and flowers, water in the late dry season, habitat structure, sleeping sites, and by the presence of neighbouring groups competing for limited resources.

The demand for gasoline in intra-urban travel: A simulation and some policy implications

The daily gasoline consumption of an individual household for intra-urban travel is simulated, under the assumption of constrained maximization of daily travel distance, using Zahavi's recently developed UMOT model for urban travel demand. A sensitivity analysis based on variations in various conditions pertaining to the cost and speed attributes of private car travel and public transportation, the characteristics of the urban area (including its transportation network) and the socio-economic features of the population provides quantitative estimates of the effects of potential strategies for controlling and/or reducing gasoline consumption. Suggestions for urban transportation system development policy are made in conclusion.