Daily Sodium Intake Research Articles

New Estimation Formulas for Daily Sodium Intake in Hemodialysis Patients by a Duplicate Portion Method

Excess sodium intake is associated with volume overload and increased blood pressure. Therefore, to prevent future cardiovascular events, a sodium-restricted diet is strongly recommended for patients on maintenance hemodialysis (HD). However, only one formula for estimating dietary sodium intake in HD patients is available, and its validity has not been adequately evaluated. This study aimed to measure daily sodium intake using the duplicate portion method and provide a new formula for estimating dietary sodium intake. Nineteen Japanese patients undergoing HD were enrolled in this cross-sectional multicenter study. The daily sodium intake of these patients was measured directly using the duplicate portion method. Two formulas for estimating sodium intake were developed by stepwise regression analysis. Their validities were compared with the validity of the previous formula. Furthermore, using these new formulas, we estimated the daily consumption of sodium in a large number of Japanese HD patients. The previous formula underestimated true sodium intake using Bland-Altman diagrams. No significant correlation was noted between the measured sodium intake and the estimated intake (r=0.30, P=.23, Fisher's Z-transformation). The new formulas 1 and 2, which included age, predialysis and postdialysis serum sodium levels, predialysis body weight, and interdialytic body weight gain, accurately estimated sodium consumption. The coefficients of correlation between the estimated values and the true sodium intake were r=0.858 and r=0.805, respectively. The simulation model using data from the Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy showed that the distribution of the estimated sodium intake using the previous formula shifted left compared with that using the new formulas. The new formulas accurately estimated the daily sodium consumption in HD patients. Further longitudinal studies are required to determine whether the estimated sodium intake level calculated using the new formulas would serve as a potential marker and/or therapeutic target to prevent cardiovascular events in HD patients.

Gastric Cancer and the Daily Intake of the Major Dish Groups Contributing to Sodium Intake: A Case-Control Study in Korea.

Studies on the association between gastric cancer (GC) and the intake of soup-based dish groups (noodles and dumplings, soups, and stews), which are sodium-contributing foods, in Korea are insufficient, and the results of studies on the intake of pickled vegetables such as kimchi are inconsistent. This study aimed to determine the association between the incidence of GC and the daily intake of high-sodium dish groups (noodles and dumplings, soups, stews, and pickled vegetables) and whether these associations differ depending on behavioral risk factors for GC. In this case-control study, subjects aged 20–79 years were recruited from two hospitals between December 2002 and September 2006. A total of 440 cases and 485 controls were recruited, of which 307 pairs were matched and included for the analysis. In our results, a higher intake of noodles and dumplings was associated with a significantly increased incidence of GC. In the participants who consumed past or current alcohol, a higher intake of noodles and dumplings was associated with a significantly increased incidence of GC. Our results suggest that efforts to reduce the daily sodium intake from noodles and dumplings are needed to prevent and reduce the incidence of GC.

SALT INTAKE ASSESSMENT BY 24-HOUR URINARY SODIUM EXCRETION IN LITHUANIAN POPULATION: PILOT STUDY

Objective: High salt intake is associated with increased arterial blood pressure, high risk of other preventable cardiovascular diseases, reduced life expectancy and higher mortality. WHO and the World Hypertension League strongly recommend to take less than 2000 mg of sodium (or less than 5 g of salt) per day1. However, in many countries the average daily intake of sodium still remains about 4000 mg (10 g of salt). Until now there were no investigations in Lithuania for evaluating sodium (and salt) intake in the population based on reliable methods. Aim of the study is to perform a pilot study and evaluate intake of sodium by 24-hour urinary sodium excretion and correlations with arterial blood pressure in Lithuanian population. Design and method: A study of randomly selected 237 healthy individuals of age 18–69 years old was performed. Each participant collected 24-hour urine samples and the blood pressure was measured 3 times. 15 subjects were excluded due to incomplete urine collection or incomplete data. 222 subjects were included in a statistical analysis. Results: An average salt intake was calculated using 24-hour urinary sodium excretion. The result was – 8,81 g/d [2,15; 25,54] of salt. 85% of subjects exceeded the recommended salt consumption value. Results varied between groups: mean salt consumption in males 10,77 (±4,79)g/d vs. females 7,46 (±3,41)g/d (p < 0,001); in age groups < 45 years old 8,57 (±3,9)g/l vs. > 45 years old 9,08 (±4,69)g/d (p > 0,05). A quartile classification revealed that individuals with higher salt consumption had significantly higher systolic arterial blood pressure (p = 0,02). Conclusions: A pilot study of 24-hour urinary sodium excretion revealed higher than recommended salt intake in Lithuania. Males use more salt. Higher salt intake correlates with higher blood pressure. The study will be continued to collect more detailed assessment of the population's sodium status and to formulate a public health policy strategy.

Application of different spatial interpolation methods in sodium intake estimation

The spatial interpolation method was used to estimate the intake of sodium in the areas without dietary sodium intake data. The data of dietary sodium consumption in this study are from the 2010-2012 China National Nutrition and Health Surveillance(CNNHS), the CNNHS was carried out on stratified multistage systematic clustered random sampling method with proportional to the population to form a representative sample of China as a whole, including 150 survey site. Dietary data was collected through face-to-face interview, based on a combination of three consecutive days of 24-h recalls combined with a household food weighting method, a total of 48 826 participants aged 20 years old and more were recruited in this study. The average sodium intake among 150 survey sites were calculated according to data of the CNNHS 2010-2012. The accuracy of spatial analysis techniques, such as Inverse Distance Weight, Ordinary Kriging, Cooperative Kriging method and Regression Kriging Interpolation method, was compared in the estimation of dietary sodium intake. The spatial analysis method with the highest accuracy was used to estimate the daily dietary sodium intake of each district and county in China, and then the dietary sodium intake of each province was calculated according to the population weight. The average sodium intake among Chinese adults was 5. 18 g, among which the average intake of men is 5. 33 g and that of women was 5. 03 g. Comparing the accuracy of four spatial analysis method in estimating dietary sodium intake, it was found that the Regression Kriging Interpolation method was superior to the other three methods, with root mean square error and mean absolute error of 0. 54 and 0. 44. The Regression Kriging Interpolation method was used to estimate the dietary sodium intake in different regions of China, the estimated national dietary sodium intake by population weighted calculation was 5. 17 g/d, the estimated national dietary sodium intake was 5. 33 g/d for men and 5. 01 g/d for women. The difference rate between the measured and estimated dietary sodium intake for all age groups was not more than 10%. Shandong Province, Tianjin City and Hebei Province had the highest sodium intake, which was 5. 98 g/d, 5. 83 g/d and 5. 82 g/d, respectively. Guizhou Province had the lowest sodium intake, with an estimated intake value of 4. 27 g/d. The spatial interpolation method can be used to estimate the intake of sodium, and the accuracy of Regression Kriging Interpolation method is higher than other spatial interpolation method.

Salinity in drinking water and blood pressure status of adolescent school children in coastal area of Bangladesh

Background: High dietary salt intake from food is a major risk factor for raised blood pressure (BP) worldwide. In the context of Bang ladesh , information regarding salinity in water and blood pressure especially in the adolescent population is very scarce. This study was conducted to assess the blood pressure status of adolescent school children in coastal area of Bangladesh.
 Methods: A one-year school based cross-sectional study was carried out among 528 students of class 8-10 at schools of Bajua Union, Dacope Upazilla, saline prone zone of Khulna district. Relevant data were collected by using pre tested semi-structured questionnaire with face to face interview & checklist. Blood pressure was mea sured in a controlled environment and Collected water sources were analyzed by DPHE, Water Testing Laboratory. The study was conducted in the schools of Bajua Uni on, Dacope Upa zilla of the saline prone zone of Khulna district in between a one-year time frame.
 Results: Among 528 participants most of them were male (353, 66.9%) with an age of 14 years (185 , 35.0%). Most of them were read in class 8 (185 , 35.0%). Prevalence of paternal, maternal, paternal grandparents' and maternal grandparents' history of hypertension were found significant. About 72.3% regularly took extra salt during meal and 43.9% took salt preserved fish with meal. Mean of systolic blood pressure of respondents were 114.2197 ± 7.61448 mm of Hg. Mean of diastolic blood pressure of respondents were 75.1 780 ± 5.45959 mm of Hg. Mean of pulse pressure of respondents were 39.0417 ± 6.56430. Mean of mean arterial pressure of respondents were 88. I 9 I 9 ± 5.44267 mm of Hg. Sodium concentration of pond were approximately in between 500-600 mg/I, whereas in tube wells approximately in between 700-1 I 00 mg/I.
 Conclusion: Drinking water sodium is an important source of daily sodium intake , and therefore a risk factor for increased BP in salinity prone coastal areas. This adds to the cardiovascular health risks associated with food sodium intake in Southeast Asian populations. Low- saline alternative drinking water sources could effectively help to prevent high BP and hypertension-related morbidity and mortality in these coastal populations. New technologies for the supply of such alternative sources, including safeguarding the microbial quality , should be further studied.
 JOPSOM 2020; 39(1): 60-66

A new equation to estimate daily natriuresis from parameters in plasma and spot urine sample in the Chilean population

Excessive sodium intake is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Daily sodium intake is usually inferred from sodium excretion in a 24-hour urine collection, which is cumbersome and prone to errors. Different formulas have attempted to estimate 24-hour urinary sodium from a spot urine sample. Unfortunately, their concordances are insufficient and have not been tested in our population. To develop an equation to predict 24-hour urine sodium from parameters in plasma and spot urine samples. To validate the equation and compare it with other formulas in Chilean population. Analysis of 24-hour urine collections, plasma sample and spot urine sample from 174 adult outpatients (81% females) with an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) ≥ 60 mL/min/1.73m2. These were collected between 2015 and 2019 using standardized methods and educating patients about the correct method to collect 24 h urine samples. In all these patients, creatinine and electrolytes were measured in plasma and urine. A new equation was developed using a multiple linear regression model. Twenty-four-hour urine sodium excretion was significantly correlated with age, weight, height, eGFR, plasma osmolarity, urine electrolytes and parameters obtained from spot urine sample, among others. The new equation had a linear correlation with 24-hour natriuresis of 0.91 and the concordance was 0.9. The predictive capacity of the new equation was better than the existing formulas. We developed a formula to accurately predict daily natriuresis in the Chilean population.

A Method for Estimating 24-Hour Urinary Sodium Excretion by Casual Urine Specimen in Chinese Hypertensive Patients.

High salt intake is a known risk factor of hypertension, which in turn increases the risk of stroke and cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate a method for predicting 24-hour urinary sodium excretion (UNa24h) using casual urine specimens in Chinese hypertensive patients. A total of 966 patients with hypertension were included from 8 provinces across China. A UNa24h prediction model (Sun_C method) was developed for males and females using linear regression based on age, weight, sodium concentration in the spot urine (UNaspot), and creatinine concentration in the spot urine (UCrspot). The data were split into the training (70%) and testing (30%) sets to, respectively, develop and evaluate the Sun_C method. Compared with the Kawasaki, INTERSALT, and Tanaka methods, Sun_C method achieved a low and consistent mean bias (1.1 mmol/d) within the range from 106 to 212 mmol/d of UNa24h (equivalent to NaCl intake of 6-12 g/d). In addition, the Sun_C method showed no significant difference between the measured and estimated UNa24h in a paired t-test (P = 0.689). At individual level, Sun_C method had 79.8% of individuals at the cutoff under ±30% level. Sun_C method may prove a reasonable method to estimate the daily dietary sodium intakes (particularly in the range of 6-12 g/d of NaCl) in Chinese hypertensive patients using spot urine measurements. As the amount of data increases in the future, the performance of our formulae will be further improved.

Methods of dietary sodium estimation

Excessive dietary sodium intake is found to be associated with high blood pressure and its consequences such as cardiovascular disease and stroke. Daily sodium intake is found to vary from place to place as it is dependent on geography, ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, etc. In this review, we summarize the various methods of assessment of daily sodium intake such as dietary estimation methods using 24-h dietary recall, food frequency questionnaire and diet record, and biochemical methods using 24-h urine sodium or spot urine sodium estimation. Daily sodium intake estimated with spot urine sodium is dependent on the equation used to convert spot urine sodium to 24-h urine sodium. To identify the appropriate equation, validation studies need to be conducted. Population level sodium intake and it's monitoring is important for reduction of noncommunicable diseases.

Trends in sodium intake and major contributing food groups and dishes in Korea: the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2017.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESExcess intake of dietary sodium, either directly or indirectly, increases the risk of several diseases, including cardio-cerebral vascular diseases such as stroke and hypertension. Excessive sodium intake and increased prevalence of hypertension have emerged as major issues worldwide. Therefore, the present study evaluated the recent trends in dietary sodium intake and the food sources of sodium intake in the Korean population using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES, 2013–2017) data.SUBJECTS/METHODSThis study used the one-day 24-h recall dietary intake survey data from the 2013–2017 KNHANES to determine the average daily sodium intake by sex and age and the main dishes and food groups contributing to the dietary sodium intake.RESULTSThe mean sodium intake range was 3,477.2–3,889.6 mg/day during 2013–2017. The major food groups contributing to sodium intake were seasonings (1,597.5–1,870.5 mg/day), vegetables (680.4–756.7 mg/day), and cereal and grains (573.2–609.4 mg/day). Noodles and dumplings (536.7–573.2 mg/day), kimchi (487.3–539.6 mg/day), and soups (367.6–428.9 mg/day) were the top three dish groups that contributed to the sodium intake. In these dishes, the major sources of sodium intake were ramyeon (age groups 10–18 and 19–29 yrs), baechukimchi (age groups 40–49 and 50–59 yrs) and doenjang-kuk (age groups 60–69 and ≥ 70 yrs), respectively.CONCLUSIONSIn summary, reducing the consumption of soups and kimchi is an effective way to reduce sodium intake. Personalized nutrition education on dietary sodium intake management is required because of the different food sources contributing to the sodium intake according to the subjects' age.

Assessment of Dietary, Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviours of Singapore Schooling Youths

Unhealthy lifestyle behaviors may set youths on the path to developing non-communicable diseases. Singapore schooling youths (n = 235, 67.2% female, age 17.5 (mean) ± 1.0 (SD) years) were recruited to examine the dietary, alcohol use, physical activity, and sedentary behaviors of the Singapore schooling youths. Demographic, anthropometric, and sedentary hours information were collected using structured questionnaires. Physical activity levels and dietary intakes, including alcohol use, were assessed using the validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire - long-form and localized food frequency questionnaire, respectively. The surveyed youths consumed significantly larger daily amounts of energy, sugar, saturated fat, and sodium than the levels recommended by the Singapore Health Promotion Board. They did not achieve the daily amounts of dietary fiber, fruits, and vegetables, and derived unhealthy proportions of daily energy from sugar and saturated fat. They did not exceed the recommended maximum daily alcohol allowance. Close to all the youths (91.2%) failed to adhere to more than five of the nine recommended healthy eating habits. Majority of these youths (73.4%) partook less than 600 MET-minute/ week. A significant number of the youths (38.1%) spent more than eight sedentary hours daily. Physical activity correlated significantly with sedentary behavior levels, but not the dietary scores. Most surveyed youths engaged in low physical activity and high sedentary behavior, and did not comply with most of the healthy eating guidelines proposed by the Singapore Health Promotion Board, specifically on daily energy, sugar, dietary fibers, saturated fat, sodium, and fruit and vegetable intakes.

Salt and arterial hypertension — epidemiological, pathophysiological and preventive aspects

Arterial hypertension in majority of cases is the result of a poor lifestyle. The table salt intake level has changed over the centuries. In populations characterized by a low level of daily salt consumption, hypertension was a rarity and cardiovascular diseases were much less common. More and more food is sold in processed form, and thus containing large amounts of salt. The amount of salt delivered with food significantly exceeds the actual body’s needs. Limitation of salt intake should apply to both prevention of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases as well as treatment of people suffering from hypertension. High sodium intake leads to increased systolic and diastolic pressure, increases the risk of cardiovascular disease as well as other diseases such as stomach cancer etc. There are many mechanisms triggered by excessive intake of table salt that lead to an increase in blood pressure. Excess salt adversely affects the entire human body, and in particular the kidneys and blood vessels. National and International Scientific Societies have developed many documents in the form of guidelines on the optimal daily sodium intake. Compliance with the recommendations and limitation of salt intake may significantly reduce the incidence of hypertension in the general population.

Relaxing music reduces blood pressure and heart rate among pre-hypertensive young adults: A randomized control trial.

Prevalence of pre‐hypertension is higher among young adults and may increase the risk for hypertension and cardiovascular morbidity. Music therapy has been investigated to reduce the blood pressure in the hypertensive population; however, its efficacy on blood pressure in pre‐hypertensive young adults is not known. Thirty pre‐hypertensive (systolic blood pressure [SBP] = 120‐139 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure [DBP] = 80‐89 mmHg) young adults were recruited and randomly assigned into two groups. Music group (N = 15) received music therapy by passive listening to music for 30 minutes/day, 5 days/week for 4 weeks, along with Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan (a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, low‐fat dairy or unsaturated fat) and limit the daily sodium intake less than 100 mmol/day. The control group (N = 15) practiced only DASH eating plan and sodium restriction. The SBP, DBP, and heart rate (HR) were measured before and after 4 weeks of intervention. There was a significant reduction in SBP (8.73 mmHg, p < .001) and HR (6.42 beats/minute, p = .002); however, the reduction in DBP (1.44 mmHg, p = .101) was not statistically significant in the music group. Control group did not exhibit any significant reduction in SBP (0.21 mmHg, p < .836), DBP (0.81 mmHg, p < .395) and HR (0.09 beats/minute, p < .935). In conclusion, music therapy reduced significantly SBP and HR suggesting that it could be a promising tool to prevent the progression of pre‐hypertension toward hypertension among young adults.

Sodium intake, life expectancy, and all-cause mortality.

Since dietary sodium intake has been identified as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and premature death, a high sodium intake can be expected to curtail life span. We tested this hypothesis by analysing the relationship between sodium intake and life expectancy as well as survival in 181 countries worldwide. We correlated age-standardized estimates of country-specific average sodium consumption with healthy life expectancy at birth and at age of 60 years, death due to non-communicable diseases and all-cause mortality for the year of 2010, after adjusting for potential confounders such as gross domestic product per capita and body mass index. We considered global health estimates as provided by World Health Organization. Among the 181 countries included in this analysis, we found a positive correlation between sodium intake and healthy life expectancy at birth (β = 2.6 years/g of daily sodium intake, R2 = 0.66, P < 0.001), as well as healthy life expectancy at age 60 (β = 0.3 years/g of daily sodium intake, R2 = 0.60, P = 0.048) but not for death due to non-communicable diseases (β = 17 events/g of daily sodium intake, R2 = 0.43, P = 0.100). Conversely, all-cause mortality correlated inversely with sodium intake (β = -131 events/g of daily sodium intake, R2 = 0.60, P < 0.001). In a sensitivity analysis restricted to 46 countries in the highest income class, sodium intake continued to correlate positively with healthy life expectancy at birth (β = 3.4 years/g of daily sodium intake, R2 = 0.53, P < 0.001) and inversely with all-cause mortality (β = -168 events/g of daily sodium intake, R2 = 0.50, P < 0.001). Our observation of sodium intake correlating positively with life expectancy and inversely with all-cause mortality worldwide and in high-income countries argues against dietary sodium intake being a culprit of curtailing life span or a risk factor for premature death. These data are observational and should not be used as a base for nutritional interventions.

Evaluation of Knowledge and Adherence of Primary Healthcare Physicians Regarding Hypertension Prevention Guidelines in the Jazan Region, Saudi Arabia.

Introduction:Adherence to hypertension prevention guidelines can aid in better control of blood pressure.Aim:This study aims to evaluate knowledge and adherence of Primary Healthcare Centers (PHCs) physicians in the Jazan region, Saudi Arabia about guidelines pertaining to prevention of hypertension.Methods:This cross-sectional study targeted PHCs physicians in the Jazan region. A questionnaire was developed based on preventive components of the Saudi Hypertension Management Guidelines (SHMGs) and was completed via interviews to measure demographics, knowledge of PHCs’ physicians about prevention of hypertension, and their adherence to guidelines concerning screening for hypertension and provision of lifestyle counselling.Results:A total of 234 PHC physicians participated in this investigation. The median age of the physicians was 38 and percentages of male and female physicians were similar. The findings suggest a low level of knowledge and practice adherence concerning prevention of hypertension among PHCs physicians in Jazan region where only 24 physicians (10%) knew the recommended amount of daily sodium intake to reduce blood pressure among pre-hypertensive patients. Similarly, only 30 physicians (13%) reported adherence to the SHMGs concerning annual screening for the disease. None of the associations concerning influence of physicians demographics on level of knowledge or practice adherence were statistically significant (P value >0.05).Conclusion:The majority of the recruited physicians were misinformed about several components related to screening for hypertension and dietary needs for lowering blood pressure levels. The low knowledge may explain the low adherence to recommended SHMGs for prevention of the disease.

The association of sodium intake with successful aging, in 3,349 middle-aged and older adults: Results from the ATTICA and MEDIS cross-sectional epidemiological studies

BACKGROUND: The association between sodium intake and successful aging is not elucidated to date. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between sodium intake and successful aging, in people aged &gt;50 years, living in Greece. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in middle aged and older adult participants of the ATTICA (n = 1,128) and MEDIS (n = 2,221) epidemiological studies. Anthropometric, clinical, socio-demographic and lifestyle characteristics derived through standard procedures and questionnaires. Sodium intake was measured based on the USDA Food Composition database; table salt or salt from processed foods were not evaluated. Successful aging was assessed using the Successful Aging Index (SAI, range 0–10, higher values indicating higher successful aging) comprising of health-related, social, lifestyle and clinical characteristics. RESULTS: Participants with ≥1500 mg/day sodium intake had 20.2% on average lower SAI score compared to those with &lt;1500 mg/day sodium intake; stratification by sex and age revealed that in both females and males high sodium intake (≥1900 mg/day) was also inversely associated with SAI compared to low sodium intake (&lt;1300 mg/day); this association was more evident among older males (high vs. low: &gt;70-males/&gt;70-females, –90% vs. 82.5%, p &lt; 0.001) and overweight/obese participants (high vs. low: overweight/obese/normal weight, –59% vs. –35%, p’s &lt; 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Daily sodium intake of &lt;1500 mg seems to be a key factor for achieving successful aging. Public health nutrition policies should enforce their actions on reducing sodium intake by people of all ages.

Estimation of Sodium and Potassium Intake: Current Limitations and Future Perspectives.

Globally, average dietary sodium intake is double the recommended amount, whereas potassium is often consumed in suboptimal amounts. High sodium diets are associated with increased cardiovascular and renal disease risk, while potassium may have protective properties. Consequently, patients at risk of cardiovascular and renal disease are urged to follow these recommendations, but dietary adherence is often low due to high sodium and low potassium content in processed foods. Adequate monitoring of intake is essential to guide dietary advice in clinical practice and can be used to investigate the relationship between intake and health outcomes. Daily sodium and potassium intake is often estimated with 24-h sodium and potassium excretion, but long-term balance studies demonstrate that this method lacks accuracy on an individual level. Dietary assessment tools and spot urine collections also exhibit poor performance when estimating individual sodium and potassium intake. Collection of multiple consecutive 24-h urines increases accuracy, but also patient burden. In this narrative review, we discuss current approaches to estimating dietary sodium and potassium intake. Additionally, we explore alternative methods that may improve test accuracy without increasing burden.

The Relationship between Dietary Sodium-to-Potassium Ratio and Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Adults: Using Data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2015

Background: The dietary sodium-to-potassium ratio (Na:K) is known to have a stronger association with cardiovascular disease compared with a single intake of sodium or potassium. Accordingly, this study sought to examine the relationship between sodium-potassium intake balance and metabolic syndrome, which increases the occurrence of cardiovascular disease.Methods: Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2015 were used, and the subjects were 13,164 adults aged 19 years and over. This study examined sodium and potassium intake and Na:K based on Korean adults' age and sex, and analyzed food groups that contribute to adequate sodium and potassium intake based on an Na:K of 1. Correlations between Na:K, metabolic syndrome, and risk factors were examined through a multiple logistic regression analysis.Results: Korean adults' average daily intake of sodium was 3,976 mg, while that of potassium was 3,076 mg.Meanwhile, the Na:K was identified to be 2.33. The food group that contributed the most to potassium intake was fruits in subjects whose Na:K was below 1, and vegetables in those whose Na:K was over 1. Compared with the lowest quartile, the highest quartile in Na:K was up 19% in the probability that one would suffer from metabolic syndrome (&lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt; for trend=0.001). Also, more Na:K led to a significant increase in the risk of elevated blood pressure and elevated blood sugar (&lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt; for trend=0.015 and 0.012).Conclusions: A rise in Na:K is related to a risk of hypertension and high blood sugar, and such a rise raises the prevalence rate of metabolic syndrome.

ASSOCIAÇÃO ENTRE INGESTÃO ALIMENTAR E RISCO DE SARCOPENIA EM PACIENTES IDOSOS EM HEMODIÁLISE

The association between food intake and risk of sarcopenia in elderly patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) on hemodialysis was verified. Elderly patients of both sexes were recruited from the hemodialysis sector of two hospitals in the interior of São Paulo. To compose the group, all individuals should have a diagnosis of CKD and undergo hemodialysis. Participants (n = 25) had their anthropometric measurements evaluated, followed by the application of the SARC-F questionnaire + calf circumference (CC) to identify the risk of sarcopenia. In addition, patients responded to a food diary to assess foodintake. Associations were found between daily intake of calories, carbohydrates, phosphorus, iron, sodium and SARC-F + CCvalues. It was concluded that there was an association between some factors of food intake and SARC-F + CC, so that the lower the intake of nutrients, the greater the risk of developing sarcopenia.

Relationship between dietary sodium and sugar intake: A cross-sectional study of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2016.

Dietary sodium intake and cardiovascular outcomes have a reported J-shaped curve relationship. This study analyzes the relationship between dietary sodium and sugar intake as a potential mechanism to explain this association. The authors examined cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2001-2016 where dietary sodium, carbohydrate, fat, cholesterol, and sugar intakes were assessed by 24-hour dietary recall and were standardized to a total daily intake of 2000 calories. Sodium intake was categorized into sodium quintiles (SQ) as follows: SQ1(0.06-2.6g/d); SQ2(2.6-3.0g/d); SQ3(3.0-3.4g/d); SQ4(3.4-4.0g/d); and SQ5(4.0-29.3g/d). Simple and multivariate linear regression using SQ3 as reference were used to assess associations between daily sodium intake and the other nutrients. Our results showed that among 38722 participants that met our study criteria, the mean age was 43.6years (SD 16.8years) and sex was equally distributed (48.8% male vs 51.2% female). Sugar intake went down across increasing SQs and was significantly higher in SQ1 (141.2g/d) and SQ2 (118.6g/d) and significantly lower in SQ4 (97.9g/d) and SQ5 (85.6g/d) compared to SQ3 (108.6g/d; all P<.01). These same trends remained unchanged and significant in the fully adjusted multivariate model. In conclusion, NHANES study participants reporting low sodium intake on 24-hour dietary recall have a higher consumption of sugar. The negative impact of low sodium diet on cardiovascular health may be explained at least partially by the associated high sugar intake.

Assessment of the Prevalence of Kidney Stone Disease: A Structural Equation Model

Background : This study entitled “Assessment of the Prevalence of Kidney Stone Disease: A Structural Equation Model” deals with the Kidney stones are of many types and have many causes, treatment depends on the size, nature and cause of the stone. Calcium and Oxalate stones are the most common varieties. Changes in the daily intake of Sodium, Protein, Calcium, Oxalate and fluid will slow stone formation. Dietary restrictions slow but do not cure kidney stones. Materials and Method : A retrospective cross-sectional study design was conducted. In this study, we have discussed the detection of kidney stones using structural equation modeling (SEM). Results : In general, structural equation models with scores for these measures of 0.9 or above are considered to have acceptable model fit and RMSEA is also a very popular measures this value is 0.19. This value indicates a not good model fit. Conclusion : There is strong evidence that there is no association between stone size, age, sex, height, BMI, and hydronephrosis.