Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenase Activity Research Articles

The role of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase in the different responses to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl in annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.) and short awned foxtail (Alopecurus aequalis Sobol.)

Herbicide resistance or tolerance in weeds mediated by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase is a considerable problem. However, cytochrome P450 mediated resistance or tolerance in weeds was less studied. Thus, in this work, the role of the cytochrome P450 monooxygenase in the different responses of Poa annua and Alopecurus aequalis to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl was studied. We found that the effect of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl could be synergized by piperonyl butoxide (PBO) in P. annua, but not by malathion. After being treated with fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (containing mefenpyr-diethyl), the contents of cytochrome P450 and cytochrome b5 in P. annua increased significantly compared to plants treated with mefenpyr-diethyl only or untreated plants. However, the increase was less in A. aequalis, which was susceptible to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. The activities of ρ-nitroanisole O-demethylase (PNOD), ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD), ethoxycoumarin oxidase (ECOD) and NADPH-dependent cytochrome P450 reductase mediated by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase increased in P. annua after treatment with fenoxaprop-P-ethyl, especially the activities of ECOD and cytochrome P450 reductase. Besides this, cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activity toward fenoxaprop-P-ethyl in P. annua increased significantly compared to untreated or treated with mefenpyr-diethyl plants and treated or untreated A. aequalis. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase may play an important role in the different responses to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl in P. annua and A. aequalis.

Plant Essential Oils Affect the Toxicities of Carbaryl and Permethrin Against <I>Aedes aegypti</I> (Diptera: Culicidae)

ABSTRACT Phytochemicals have been considered as alternatives for conventional pesticides because of their low mammalian toxicity and environmental safety. They usually display less potent insecticidal effects than synthetic compounds, but may express as yet unknown modes of action. In the current study, we evaluated 14 plant essential oils for their toxicities and synergistic effects with carbaryl and permethrin against fourth instars of Aedes aegypti (L.) as well as 5-7-d-old adults. Six essential oils showed significant synergistic effects with carbaryl at 10-50 mg/liter, but paradoxically all of them decreased the toxicity of permethrin against Ae. aegypti larvae. None showed toxicity or synergistic effects on Ae. aegypti adults, at doses up to 2,000 ng/ insect. The six essential oils displaying synergistic effects in Ae. aegypti larvae inhibited the in vitro activities of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and carboxylesterases in the low milligram per liter range. The data indicated that cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and carboxylesterase were probably targets for these natural synergists. Thus, the mechanism of synergism was most likely inhibition of metabolism and not interacting target site effects.

Insecticide Resistance in Two <I>Aedes aegypti</I> (Diptera: Culicidae) Strains From Costa Rica

Dengue (family Flaviridae, genus Flavivirus, DENV) and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) are presently important public health problems in Costa Rica. The primary strategy for disease control is based on reducing population densities of the main mosquito vector Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). This is heavily dependent on use of chemical insecticides, thus the development of resistance is a frequent threat to control program effectiveness. The objective of this study was to determine the levels of insecticide resistance and the metabolic resistance mechanisms involved in two Ae. aegypti strains collected from two provinces (Puntarenas and Limon) in Costa Rica. Bioassays with larvae were performed according to World Health Organization guidelines and resistance in adults was measured through standard bottle assays. The activities of beta-esterases, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, and glutathione S-transferases (GST), were assayed through synergists and biochemical tests, wherein the threshold criteria for each enzyme was established using the susceptible Rockefeller strain. The results showed higher resistance levels to the organophosphate (OP) temephos and the pyrethroid deltamethrin in larvae. The efficacy of commercial formulations of temephos in controlling Ae. aegypti populations was 100% mortality up to 11 and 12 d posttreatment with daily water replacements in test containers. Temephos and deltamethrin resistance in larvae were associated with high esterase activity, but not to cytochrome P450 monooxygenase or GST activities. Adult mosquitoes were resistant to deltamethrin, and susceptible to bendiocarb, chlorpyrifos, and cypermethrin. Because temephos and deltamethrin resistance are emerging at the studied sites, alternative insecticides should be considered. The insecticides chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin could be good candidates to use as alternatives for Ae. aegypti control.

Acaricide, Fungicide and Drug Interactions in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera)

BackgroundChemical analysis shows that honey bees (Apis mellifera) and hive products contain many pesticides derived from various sources. The most abundant pesticides are acaricides applied by beekeepers to control Varroa destructor. Beekeepers also apply antimicrobial drugs to control bacterial and microsporidial diseases. Fungicides may enter the hive when applied to nearby flowering crops. Acaricides, antimicrobial drugs and fungicides are not highly toxic to bees alone, but in combination there is potential for heightened toxicity due to interactive effects.Methodology/Principal FindingsLaboratory bioassays based on mortality rates in adult worker bees demonstrated interactive effects among acaricides, as well as between acaricides and antimicrobial drugs and between acaricides and fungicides. Toxicity of the acaricide tau-fluvalinate increased in combination with other acaricides and most other compounds tested (15 of 17) while amitraz toxicity was mostly unchanged (1 of 15). The sterol biosynthesis inhibiting (SBI) fungicide prochloraz elevated the toxicity of the acaricides tau-fluvalinate, coumaphos and fenpyroximate, likely through inhibition of detoxicative cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activity. Four other SBI fungicides increased the toxicity of tau-fluvalinate in a dose-dependent manner, although possible evidence of P450 induction was observed at the lowest fungicide doses. Non-transitive interactions between some acaricides were observed. Sublethal amitraz pre-treatment increased the toxicity of the three P450-detoxified acaricides, but amitraz toxicity was not changed by sublethal treatment with the same three acaricides. A two-fold change in the toxicity of tau-fluvalinate was observed between years, suggesting a possible change in the genetic composition of the bees tested.Conclusions/SignificanceInteractions with acaricides in honey bees are similar to drug interactions in other animals in that P450-mediated detoxication appears to play an important role. Evidence of non-transivity, year-to-year variation and induction of detoxication enzymes indicates that pesticide interactions in bees may be as complex as drug interactions in mammals.

Regulation of vinblastine biosynthesis in cell suspension cultures of catharanthus roseus

Various elicitors of hydroxylase, peroxidase, acetyltransferase and inhibitors of oxygenase were added to a Catharanthus roseus cell culture medium to investigate the regulatory effects on tabersonine, vindoline and vinblastine biosynthesis. Hydrogen peroxide was found to be the most effective agent for enhancing the biosynthesis of tabersonine. By adding 20 μg/L hydrogen peroxide, the tabersonine concentration reached 9.02 mg/g dry weight (DW) after culturing cell suspensions for 7 days. With the addition of 30 μg/L acetyl CoA, the most vindoline (final cell content of 0.33 mg/g DW) was produced. By effective inhibition of lochnericine biosynthesis with the addition of 0.5 μmol/L benzotriazole, the cell content of vindoline was increased to 0.42 mg/g DW. An orthogonal experiment consisting of multiple regulation factors was carried out to optimize vinblastine biosynthesis. It was shown that optimal vinblastine biosynthesis was achieved by addition of 5 mg/L acetyl CoA, 20 μg/L hydrogen peroxide, 0.5 μmol/L benzotriazole, 100 mg/L tryptophan, 100 mg/L loganin and 30 mg/L cerium chloride. Under these conditions, the cell content of vinblastine reached 0.81 mg/g DW. Simultaneous changes in cell content and enzyme activities of Cytochrome P-450 monooxygenases, Deacetylvindoline-O-acetyltransferase and Peroxidase enzyme indicated that these enzymes were closely linked to vinblastine biosynthesis.

Geographic variability in response to azinphos‐methyl in field‐collected populations of Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) from Argentina

Resistance to insecticides has been related to application history, genetic factors of the pest and the dynamic within the treated area. The aim of this study was to assess the geographic variation in azinphos-methyl response and the role of esterase and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase enzymes in codling moth populations collected within different areas of the Río Negro and Neuquén Valley, Argentina. Diapausing field-collected populations showed resistance ratios at the LC(50) that were 0.7-8.7 times higher than that of the susceptible strain. Mean esterase (EST) and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activities (expressed as α-N min(-1) mg(-1) prot(-1) and pg 7-OHC insect(-1) min(-1) respectively) were significantly correlated with LD(50) values from the field-collected populations. In addition, azinphos-methyl response was associated with the geographic area where the insect population was collected: populations from isolated and more recent productive areas presented significantly lower resistance ratios in comparison with populations from older and more intensive productive areas. The populations assayed presented different resistance levels to azinphos-methyl. The response was highly correlated with the orchard's geographic location. EST and ECOD activities were involved in azinphos-methyl response in the given region.

Chlorantraniliprole Susceptibility in Leptinotarsa decemlineata in the North Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in China

The Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)) in the north Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region has evolved resistance to various types of insecticides. Chlorantraniliprole is a novel anthranilic diamide insecticide that binds and activates ryanodine receptors. It exhibited excellent efficacy against L. decemlineata in several field trails in Europe. In the present paper, the susceptibility of L. decemlineata fourth-instar larvae derived from six field populations and L. decemlineata adults derived from three field populations to chlorantraniliprole was determined by a topical application. The fourth-instar larvae were substantially more susceptible to chlorantraniliprole than adults, although the range of susceptibility was far greater among the fourth-instar larvae. Regarding stomach toxicities, adult beetles were less susceptible to chlorantraniliprole than larvae. Chlorantraniliprole was most toxic to second-instar larvae, followed by third- and fourth-instar larvae. These data suggested that the appropriate timing for chlorantraniliprole spraying is the early larval stage. Moreover, the synergistic activities of chlorantraniliprole in combination with triphenyl phosphate, diethyl maleate, or piperonyl butoxide against fourth-instar larvae from two field populations and adults from one field population were tested. Piperonyl butoxide had synergistic effects with chlorantraniliprole against fourth-instar larvae but not against adult beetles. Conversely, triphenyl phosphate and diethyl maleate exerted little synergistic effects. It appears that there is a potential risk of resistance against chlorantraniliprole resulting from cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activity.

Metabolic resistance mechanisms to phosalone in the common pistachio psyllid, Agonoscena pistaciae (Hem.: Psyllidae)

The common pistachio psyllid, Agonoscena pistaciae, is the most damaging pest of pistachio in Iran, and is generally controlled by insecticides belonging to various classes especially, phosalone. The toxicity of phosalone in nine populations of the pest was assayed using the residual contact vial and insect-dip methods. The bioassay results showed significant discrepancy in susceptibility to phosalone among the populations. Resistance ratio of the populations to the susceptible population ranged from 3.3 to 11.3. The synergistic effects of TPP, PBO and DEM were evaluated on the susceptible and the most resistant population to determine the involvement of esterases, mixed function oxidases and glutathione S-transferases in resistance mechanisms, respectively. The level of resistance to phosalone in the resistant population was suppressed by TPP, PBO and DEM, suggesting that the resistance to phosalone is mainly caused by esterase detoxification. Biochemical enzyme assays revealed that esterase, glutathione S-transferase and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activities in the resistant population was higher than that in the susceptible. Glutathione- S-transferases play a minor role in the resistance of the pest to phosalone.

Effect of strychnine hydrochloride on liver cytochrome P450 mRNA expression and monooxygenase activities in rat

Strychnos nux-vomica L. has been frequently used in traditional Chinese medicine but has high acute toxicity. It is commonly taken with Glycyrrhizae radix to decrease its toxicity but the mechanism of this interaction is unknown. In this work, the mRNA expression and the activity of four cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes representative of four subfamilies (CYP1A, CYP3A, CYP2C and CYP2E) were determined ex vivo in rat livers from groups of Wistar rats orally administered strychnine hydrochloride (SH) at three doses (0.1, 0.3 and 0.9 mg/kg/day) alone and, at the highest dose, in combination with glycyrrhetinic acid (GA, 25 mg/kg/day) or liquiritin (LQ, 20 mg/kg/day) once a day for 7 consecutive days. Compared to control, the mRNA expressions of CYP3A1, 1A2 and 2E1 were higher in rats receiving the highest dose of SH but lower for CYP3A1 and CYP2E1 in rats receiving the SH+GA and SH+LQ combinations. CYP2E1 activity was higher and CYP2C, CYP3A and CYP1A2 activities were lower in rats receiving the highest dose of SH. In contrast CYP1A2 and CYP2C activities were higher and CYP2E1 and CYP3A activities lower in rats receiving the SH+GA combination. CYP2E1 and CYP3A activities were also lower in rats receiving the SH+LQ combination. The results show that treatment with SH for 7 days affects the expression and the activity of CYP enzymes and that coadministration of GA and LQ modulates these effects. This modulation may explain the role of Glycyrrhizae radix in reducing the acute toxicity of Strychnos nux-vomica L.CYPs enzymes.

Cross-resistance and biochemical mechanisms of abamectin resistance in the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis

Abamectin resistance was selected in the western flower thrips [ Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)] under the laboratory conditions, and cross-resistance patterns and possible resistance mechanisms in the abamectin-resistant strain (ABA-R) were investigated. Compared with the susceptible strain (ABA-S), the ABA-R strain displayed 45.5-fold resistance to abamectin after 15 selection cycles during 18 generations. Rapid reversion of abamectin resistance was observed in the ABA-R strain in the absence of the insecticide selection pressure. Moderate and low levels of cross-resistance to chlorpyrifos (RR 11.4) and lambda-cyhalothrin (3.98) were observed in the ABA-R strain, but no significant cross-resistance was found to spinosad (2.00), acetamiprid (1.47) and chlorfenapyr (0.26). Our studies also showed that the esterase inhibitor S, S, S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF) and glutathione S-transferase inhibitor diethyl maleate (DEM) were not able to synergize the toxicity of abamectin, whereas the oxidase inhibitor piperonyl butoxide (PBO) conferred a significant synergism on abamectin in the ABA-R strain (SR 3.00). Biochemical analysis showed that cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activity of the ABA-R strain was 6.66-fold higher than that of the ABA-S strain. It appears that enhanced oxidative metabolism mediated by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases was a major mechanism for abamectin resistance in the western flower thrips.

Vertically Integrated Human P450 and Oxygen Sensing Film for the Assays of P450 Metabolic Activities

An assaying method of cytochrome P450 (P450 or CYP) monooxygenase activities for toxicological evaluation of drugs and environmental pollutants was developed by immobilizing P450 on an oxygen sensoring layer. Membrane fractions from E. coli expressing human P450 were entrapped in agarose or silica-based gels and immobilized on 96-well microarrays having an oxygen sensing film at the bottom. The oxygen sensing film was made of an organically modified silica film (ORMOSIL) doped with Tris(4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline) ruthenium dichloride (Ru(dpp)(3)Cl(2)). P450 activity toward the substrates was monitored through the fluorescence intensity enhancement due to the oxygen consumption by the metabolic reactions. For the metabolism of chlortoluron, a selective herbicide used to control grass weeds, CYP1A1 immobilized in agarose gel showed a higher activity and stability compared with those in silica gels and free suspensions. The luminescence changing rate evaluated by the dynamic transient method (DTM) could be correlated with the substrate concentration. We also compared the metabolic responses of human P450s (CYP1A1,CYP2C8, CYP2E1, CYP3A4) toward various substances. The use of immobilized P450 on an oxygen sensing layer provides a versatile assaying platform owing to the following features. First, the oxygen sensor can detect metabolic reactions of any P450 species, in contrast with assays using fluorogenic substrates. Second, vertical integration of the oxygen sensor and immobilized P450 enhanced the sensitivity because of the effective depletion of oxygen in the vicinity of the oxygen sensing layer. Third, immobilization enables repeated use of P450 by replacing the substrate solutions using a flow cell. Furthermore, the activity of immobilized P450 was retained at least for 3 weeks at 4 °C, suggesting its long-term stability, which is an additional attractive feature.

Cloning and expression of cytochrome P450 CYP6B7 in fenvalerate‐resistant and susceptible Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) from China

AbstractOur previous studies have found that the levels of cytochrome P450 and oxidative activities of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases were enhanced in a fenvalerate‐resistant strain (HDFR) of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) in China, comparing with those of a susceptible strain (HDS). Here, we report the molecular cloning and gene expression of a specific P450 CYP6B7 from HDFR and HDS strain of H. armigera. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence showed that there were three substitutions of amino acids in the coding region of CYP6B7 cDNA of HDFR strain, comparing with that of HDS strain. Meanwhile, there were three mutative nucleotides in the intron of CYP6B7 genomic DNA in HDFR strain. Northern blotting analysis showed that the expression of CYP6B7 mRNA in HDFR strain of H. armigera was more than 5‐fold higher than that in HDS strain. Further studies indicated that the expression of CYP6B7 mRNA increased as the larvae developed; however, it was rarely detected in the pupae and adult stages. The results suggested that cytochrome P450 CYP6B7 plays an important role in the pyrethroid insecticide fenvalerate resistance of HDFR strain of H. armigera; over‐expression of CYP6B7 combined with relevant substitution of amino acids might be responsible for fenvalerate‐resistance in H. armigera from China.

Molecular Cloning, Expression, and Initial Characterization of Members of the CYP3A Family in Horses

The use of performance-enhancing drugs in the horse racing industry combined with the need for more rational approaches in the use of therapeutic agents in equids necessitates additional studies on the spectrum, content, and catalytic activities of hepatic cytochrome P450 monooxygenases in this species. In this study, three cytochrome P450 (P450) monooxygenases in the 3A family were cloned from, sequenced, and expressed in a baculovirus expression system. The proteins were designated CYP3A89, CYP3A96, and CYP3A97. Expression studies produced various results among the three proteins. CYP3A89 appears to undergo post-translational modification, producing a truncated protein, and although metabolically active, CYP3A97 did not have a detectable P450 spectrum. Expression of CYP3A96 produced a full-length, catalytically active protein. CYP3A96 catalyzed testosterone, and nifedipine metabolism was 20- and 10-fold slower, respectively, compared with the human counterpart, CYP3A4. Relative hepatic expression levels of each member of the CYP3A family, determined using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, varied more than 1000-fold in individual horses. The results demonstrate substantial interspecies variability in metabolism of substrates by members of the CYP3A family in the horse and human and support the need to fully characterize 450-mediated metabolism in equids. These studies provide a framework for screening therapeutically useful drugs and provide a method for determination of metabolites of illegal performance-enhancing drugs without the time and expense of either in vivo studies or obtaining liver samples for in vitro analysis.

Survey of Susceptibility to Abamectin of Pear Psylla (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) in Northern Italy

The pear psylla, Cacopsylla pyri L. (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is a relevant pest of pear, Pyrus communis L., trees in Emilia-Romagna region (northern Italy). The susceptibility to the insecticide abamectin was evaluated at different times of the year on C. pyri populations undergoing different control strategies within conventional, integrated, and organic farms. The tests performed were the egg spray and the topic and dip bioassay on adults. The larval mortality was evaluated by dip bioassay on treated leaves. The activity of P450-dependent monooxygenases, a relevant enzyme system involved in insecticide resistance of C. pyri, was also determined in adults by 7-ethoxycoumarin O-deethylation (ECOD assay). Tests on treated eggs and on larvae showed no significant differences in LC50 and LC90, although these values were always lower in individuals collected from organic farms in comparison with all other farms. Tests on overwintering adults revealed differences among populations, probably more related to collection time than to field pest control strategies. Unexpectedly, the ECOD assay on adults showed a slightly higher cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activity in the population undergoing organic control in comparison to others. Our results indicate that egg spray is the most reliable bioassay to verify data of open-field applications. Apparently, no resistance to abamectin has yet been developed by C. pyri in Emilia-Romagna.

Pyriproxyfen Resistance of <I>Bemisia tabaci</I> (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) Biotype B: Metabolic Mechanism

Juvenile hormone (JH) analog insecticides are relatively nontoxic to vertebrates and provide efficient control of key arthropod pests. One JH analog, pyriproxyfen, has provided over a decade of exceptional management of whiteflies in cotton of the southwestern United States. Thwarting resistance to pyriproxyfen in Bemisia tabaci (Gannadius) (a.k.a. Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring) has been the focus of an integrated resistance management program because this insecticide was first registered for use in Arizona cotton in 1996. Resistance levels have increased slowly in field populations in recent years but have not demonstrably affected field performance of pyriproxyfen. Resistant strains have been isolated and studied in the laboratory to determine the mechanism of resistance and identify optimal strategies for controlling resistant whiteflies. Synergism bioassays showed that resistance in a laboratory-selected strain QC02-R, was partially suppressible with piperonyl butoxid (PBO) and diethyl maleate (DEM) but not with S, S, S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF). Consistent with the synergism bioassay results, enzymatic assays revealed that the enzyme activities of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450) and glutathione S-transferases (GST) but not esterases were significantly higher in the pyriproxyfen-resistant QC02-R strain than in the susceptible strain. These results indicate that both P450 and GST are involved in whitefly resistance to pyriproxyfen.

Sequence characterization of cytochrome P450 CYP6P9 in pyrethroid resistant and susceptible Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae)

Anopheles funestus, one of the main African malaria vectors, caused a major malaria outbreak in South Africa during 1999/2000, even though South Africa had an effective vector control program in place. The outbreak was due to pyrethroid resistant An. funestus invading KwaZulu/Natal. Increased activity of cytochrome P450 (monooxygenase) was responsible for the pyrethroid resistance in this species. A monooxygenase gene, CYP6P9, was highly overexpressed in the pyrethroid-resistant strain compared with a susceptible strain. Characterization of this gene as well as the redox partners involved in the catalytic cycle of P450s was investigated. The full length of the CYP6P9 sequence was isolated, sequenced and compared between the pyrethroid-resistant and -susceptible strains. Sequence identity between the two strains was 99.3%; the sequence differences were mainly outside of the conserved regions. The functional significance is still unknown, but it is feasible that these variations are associated with differences in insecticide metabolism. A second CYP6 gene (CYP6P13) was also isolated; it shared close similarities with CYP6P9. The putative redox partners, cytochrome b(5) (cyt b(5)) and NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR), were isolated from An. funestus (resistant strain) and showed high levels of sequence identity to other insect cyt b(5) and CPRs. Isolation of the coding sequences CYP6P9 and its cognate redox partners enables expression of functional recombinant protein for biochemical and structural analysis.

Cross‐resistance study and biochemical mechanisms of thiamethoxam resistance in B‐biotype Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

B-biotype Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) has invaded China over the past two decades. To understand the risks and to determine possible mechanisms of resistance to thiamethoxam in B. tabaci, a resistant strain was selected in the laboratory. Cross-resistance and the biochemical mechanisms of thiamethoxam resistance were investigated in the present study. A 66.3-fold thiamethoxam-resistant B. tabaci strain (TH-R) was established after selection for 36 generations. Compared with the susceptible strain (TH-S), the selected TH-R strain showed obvious cross-resistance to imidacloprid (47.3-fold), acetamiprid (35.8-fold), nitenpyram (9.99-fold), abamectin (5.33-fold) and carbosulfan (4.43-fold). No cross-resistance to fipronil, chlorpyrifos or deltamethrin was seen. Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) exhibited significant synergism on thiamethoxam effects in the TH-R strain (3.14- and 2.37-fold respectively). However, diethyl maleate (DEM) did not act synergistically with thiamethoxam. Biochemical assays showed that cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activities increased 1.21- and 1.68-fold respectively, and carboxylesterase activity increased 2.96-fold in the TH-R strain. However, no difference was observed for glutathione S-transferase between the two strains. B-biotype B. tabaci develops resistance to thiamethoxam. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and carboxylesterase appear to be responsible for the resistance. Reasonable resistance management that avoids the use of cross-resistance insecticides may delay the development of resistance to thiamethoxam in this species.

Biochemical mechanisms of insecticide resistance in the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidopterata: Yponomeutidae), in the Sydney region, Australia

AbstractFollowing the detection of resistant diamondback moth (DBM) populations to synthetic pyrethroid, organophosphorus and indoxacarb insecticides in the Sydney Basin, a study of the major biochemical mechanisms was conducted to determine the type of resistance in these populations. The activity of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases increased two‐ to sixfold when compared with the susceptible strain. Up to a 1.9‐fold increase in esterase activity in resistant strains compared with the susceptible strain was observed. In vitro inhibition studies showed that profenofos, methamidophos and chlorpyrifos strongly inhibited the esterases while permethrin and esfenvalerate resulted in less than 30% inhibition. Qualitative analysis of the esterases using native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed four bands in both the susceptible and resistant individuals with more intense staining in the resistant individuals. The development of these bands was inhibited by methamidophos and chlorpyrifos pretreatment of the protein extract while permethrin and esfenvalerate did not exhibit this effect. Glutathione S‐transferase (GST) activity was significantly higher in two field populations compared with the remaining populations. Overall, the study showed that the mechanisms of insecticide resistance in the DBM populations in the area studied were due to cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, esterase and GSTs, and possibly other non‐metabolic mechanisms that were not investigated in the present study.

Exploring the molecular basis of insecticide resistance in the dengue vector Aedes aegypti: a case study in Martinique Island (French West Indies).

BackgroundThe yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti is a major vector of dengue and hemorrhagic fevers, causing up to 100 million dengue infections every year. As there is still no medicine and efficient vaccine available, vector control largely based on insecticide treatments remains the only method to reduce dengue virus transmission. Unfortunately, vector control programs are facing operational challenges with mosquitoes becoming resistant to commonly used insecticides. Resistance of Ae. aegypti to chemical insecticides has been reported worldwide and the underlying molecular mechanisms, including the identification of enzymes involved in insecticide detoxification are not completely understood.ResultsThe present paper investigates the molecular basis of insecticide resistance in a population of Ae. aegypti collected in Martinique (French West Indies). Bioassays with insecticides on adults and larvae revealed high levels of resistance to organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides. Molecular screening for common insecticide target-site mutations showed a high frequency (71%) of the sodium channel 'knock down resistance' (kdr) mutation. Exposing mosquitoes to detoxification enzymes inhibitors prior to bioassays induced a significant increased susceptibility of mosquitoes to insecticides, revealing the presence of metabolic-based resistance mechanisms. This trend was biochemically confirmed by significant elevated activities of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, glutathione S-transferases and carboxylesterases at both larval and adult stages. Utilization of the microarray Aedes Detox Chip containing probes for all members of detoxification and other insecticide resistance-related enzymes revealed the significant constitutive over-transcription of multiple detoxification genes at both larval and adult stages. The over-transcription of detoxification genes in the resistant strain was confirmed by using real-time quantitative RT-PCR.ConclusionThese results suggest that the high level of insecticide resistance found in Ae. aegypti mosquitoes from Martinique island is the consequence of both target-site and metabolic based resistance mechanisms. Insecticide resistance levels and associated mechanisms are discussed in relation with the environmental context of Martinique Island. These finding have important implications for dengue vector control in Martinique and emphasizes the need to develop new tools and strategies for maintaining an effective control of Aedes mosquito populations worldwide.

Toxicogenomics Applied to Cultures of Human Hepatocytes Enabled an Identification of Novel Petasites hybridus Extracts for the Treatment of Migraine with Improved Hepatobiliary Safety

Butterbur extracts (Petasites hybridus) are recommended for the prevention of migraine, but pharmacovigilance reports may be suggestive of rare hepatobiliary toxicity. To evaluate its hepatotoxic potential, a series of in vivo and in vitro studies were carried out. Essentially, there were no signs of hepatocellular toxicity at estimated therapeutic C(max) levels of 60 ng/ml. Nonetheless, in a 28-day toxicity study at approximately 200-fold of therapeutic doses, induced liver transaminases and bilirubin elevations were observed. In a subsequent 6-month chronic toxicity study, the initial hepatobiliary effects were reproduced, but at the end of the study, liver function recovered and returned to normal as evidenced by clinical chemistry measurements. To identify possible mechanisms of hepatotoxicity, we investigated liver function in vitro at > 170-fold of therapeutic C(max) levels, including cytotoxicity (lactate dehydrogenase, MTT, and ATP), transaminase activities (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase), albumin synthesis, urea and testosterone metabolism to assay for cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activity. Only with extracts rich in petasin (37% petasin) and at high and well above therapeutic doses, liver toxicity was observed. A toxicogenomic approach applied to hepatocyte cultures enabled hypothesis generation and was highly suggestive for extracts high in petasin content to impair bile acid transport and lipid and protein metabolism. Importantly, neither chronic rat in vivo nor rat in vitro studies predicted reliably hepatotoxicity, therefore reemphasizing the utility of human-based in vitro investigations for the development of safe medicinal products. Finally, toxicogenomics enabled the characterization of a novel butterbur extract with no signals for hepatotoxicity.