Thermal Shock Cycles Research Articles

Mechanical Properties and Thermal Shock Behavior of Al2O3-YSZ Ceramic Layers Obtained by Atmospheric Plasma Spraying

Ceramic coatings have many advantages for industrial and medical applications due to their exceptional properties. Ceramic coatings with a thickness of approximately 45 μm, after grinding, were grown using a robotic arm that used the atmospheric plasma spraying procedure. The thermal shock stresses—a common situation in applications but difficult to reproduce under laboratory conditions—of the ceramic layers on top of the metal substrate was achieved using solar energy focused by a concentrating mirror, based on experiments conducted in the CNRS-PROMES laboratory, UPR 8521, belonging to the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS). The ceramic layers showed excellent stability at 1000 °C, even at high heating or cooling rates. At high temperatures (above 1800 °C), the exfoliation of the complex ceramic layer was observed. No differences in the structural, phase, mechanical or adhesion properties of the ceramic layer were observed after the thermal shock cycles (in the literature, there have been quite few reports regarding the properties of the ceramic layers after the thermal shock application). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques were used to characterize the complex ceramic coating and the effects of thermal shock cycling. The phases and chemical composition of the complex coatings remained similar, insensitive to thermal shock at 1000 °C, consisting of a mixture of crystalline yttrium zirconium oxide and α and γ alumina. For all cases, the main residual stress state was tensile. After 5 or 10 cycles of thermal shocks, a smoothing of the residual stress state was observed in the investigated area. A higher temperature (above 1800 °C), applied as thermal shock, led to higher residual stresses and resulted in large cracks and the spallation of the coating layer.

The Study of Radius End Mills with TiB2 Coating When Milling a Nickel Alloy

Nickel alloy high-speed processing technology using ball-end mills is characterized by high contact temperature and leads to accelerated tool wear. One of the effective ways to increase its reliability and service life is to modify the surface by applying functional antifriction layers in addition to wear-resistant coatings. Diamond-like carbon is often used as the latter. However, at cutting speed, when a cutting-edge temperature exceeding 650 °C is reached, the material of this coating reacts actively with oxygen in the air, and the sharply increasing adhesive component of wear quickly incapacitates the milling tooth, limiting its performance. Applying a coating of titanium diboride as an antifriction layer on top of nanocrystalline composite nitride coatings with good resistance to abrasive wear can be a solution to this problem. Our experiments have shown that such technology makes it possible to obtain a twofold increase in durability compared to a tool with a diamond-like antifriction coating in conditions when the cutting edge of the tool is subjected to cyclic thermal shocks above 800 °C, and the durability period of the radius end mill is about 50 min.

Preparation and properties of porous MgO based ceramics from magnesite tailings and fused magnesia

Porous MgO based ceramics have been widely used in some key industries due to their excellent performance. To investigate the feasibility of preparing porous magnesia ceramics using magnesite tailings as a magnesium source. Porous MgO based ceramics were prepared using magnesite tailings, fused magnesia as main raw materials and soluble starch as pore-forming agent. The starting materials were mixed in different ratios and sintered at 1500 °C for 2 h to obtain good mechanical and thermophysical properties. The Mg2SiO4 plays a fixing role, inhibiting the growth of MgO grains and further promoting the discharge of pores. This fixation can prevent the linear expansion of cracks, thus increasing the fracture surface energy of the specimen. In addition, the scattering effect of pores on gas molecules decreases as the magnesite tailings content increase, so that the thermal conductivity increases. The results showed that when the mass ratio of magnesite tailings to fused magnesia was increased from 1:1 to 1:0 with 4 wt% soluble starch as the pore-forming agent, the apparent porosity decreased from 35.59% to 11.8%; the bulk density increased from 2.37 to 2.82 g∙cm−3; the linear shrinkage ratio increased from 9.28 to 24.23%; the cold compressive strength increased from 47.75 to 226.52 MPa; the residual strength retention rate after one thermal shock cycles at 1100 °C was between 64.05 and 87.76%; and the thermal conductivity increased from 7.44 to 12.23 W∙m−1 K−1.

Laser texturing at interface for improved strain tolerance and thermal insulation performance of thermal barrier coatings

Titanium alloys have become indispensable materials for lightweight and high-thrust-to-weight-ratio aeroengines owing to their low densities and high specific strengths. However, as the thrust-to-weight ratio increases, the temperature in an aeroengine increases to values considerably above the service temperature of the titanium alloy. Effective design and preparation of the interface structure are a potential approach to enhance the service life and dependability of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs). In this study, TBCs were prepared by spark plasma sintering (SPS) on Ti-6Al-4V, and a texture was engraved at the bond coating (BC)/top coating (TC) interface by a fibre laser. The laser texturing induced segmentation cracks. High-density segmentation cracks (dense vertical cracks (DVCs)) could be formed at densely spaced areas of the texturing. Based on the bimodal structure characteristic obtained by SPS, bimodal-structured DVC TBCs were realised, which provided the coating with higher strain tolerance and thermal insulation performance. After 138 cycles of thermal shock at 800 °C, the spallation area of a 2-mm square coating was only 34.55 % of that of unengraved TBCs. In addition, the laser-textured coating had a better thermal insulation performance. The thermal insulation temperature of a hexagonal 2-mm coating reached 215 °C.

Phase Composition, Hardness, and Thermal Shock Properties of AlCrTiN Hard Films with High Aluminum Content

TiCrAlN hard films based on TiN or CrN show superior properties in terms of hardness, wear resistance, and thermal stability due to the addition of alloying elements. AlCrTiN films based on AlN may have higher thermal shock properties, but the knowledge of AlCrTiN films with high Al content has been insufficient until now. In this study, two sets of AlCrTiN hard films with different Al contents of 48 at.% and 58 at.% among metal components were prepared via multi-arc ion plating so as to investigate the effect of Al content on the phase composition, hardness, and thermal shock resistance of the films. The same microstructures, morphologies, and thicknesses of the fabricated film samples were achieved by changing the combination of cathode alloy targets and adjusting the arc source current during deposition. The surface chemical composition, cross-sectional elemental distribution, microstructure, morphology, phase composition, surface hardness, film/substrate adhesion strength, and thermal shock performance of the AlCrTiN films were examined. The obtained results reveal that the two sets of AlTiCrN hard films are face-centered cubic solid solutions with a columnar fine grain structure and a preferred growth orientation of (200) crystal plane. The hardness of the AlCrTiN films can be improved up to HV2850 by properly reducing the Al content from 58 at.% to 48 at.%. Meanwhile, the film/substrate adhesion performance is strong enough in terms of critical loads greater than 200 N. Furthermore, the AlCrTiN films maintain high thermal shock resistance at 600 °C when the Al content decreases from 58 at.% to 48 at.%. The optimal composition of the AlCrTiN hard films is 25:13:15:47 (at.%), based on the consideration of hardness, adhesion, and thermal shock cycling resistance. This optimal AlCrTiN hard film can be suggested as an option for protective coatings of hot process die tools.

YAlO3 reinforced AlN composite ceramics with significantly improved mechanical properties and thermal shock resistance

AlN is regarded as a promising ceramic material for high performance structural and high temperature applications due to its superior properties such as high thermal conductivity, excellent stability and wear resistance. However, challenges remain in fabricating AlN ceramics with high strength and high thermal shock resistance. In this work, AlN/YAlO3 composites with different YAlO3 contents (3–10 wt%) were prepared by a simple pressureless sintering method, and the impact of YAlO3 content on mechanical properties and thermal shock resistance of AlN/YAlO3 composites was investigated. Results show that the grain growth of AlN is inhibited and the densification is improved with the addition of 3 wt% and 5 wt% YAlO3. Hence, the flexural strength and fracture toughness of AlN/YAlO3 composites are improved due to the grain refinement and compactness enhancement, and the highest value, 369 MPa and 3.84 MPa m1/2, are reached by the AlN-5 wt% YAlO3 composite. Moreover, the thermal shock resistance was assessed through theoretical forecast and cyclic thermal shock tests over a temperature range between 1000 °C and 1600 °C. Comparing with pure AlN, the thermal stress damage resistance parameters (RIV) of AlN/YAlO3 composites were increased, while their residual strengths and retention ratios after 10–50 cycles of thermal shock tests maintained a higher level as well. Microstructure analysis revealed that the thermal shock resistance of AlN/YAlO3 composites was evidently improved attributing to various strengthening mechanisms such as crack deflection, crack branching and microcrack toughening.

Cyclic Thermal Shock Response of Zirconia/304 Stainless Steel Functionally Graded Materials Fabricated by Centrifugal Slurry Methods

Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are multi-phase composites with gradual spatial variations of constituents. The compositional transitions in the FGMs are classified into two manners such as continuous gradient manners and stepwise manners. In this study, zirconia (ZrO2)/ 304 stainless steel (SUS304) FGMs with continuous gradient manners were fabricated by a combination of centrifugal slurry methods and spark plasma sintering (SPS). A variety of continuous gradient patterns were achieved by controlling the amount of dispersant such as ammonium polycarboxylic acid (PCA) in the slurry. With an increase in the amount of PCA, the gradient patterns in the FGMs changed from ceramic (ZrO2)-rich to metal (SUS304)-rich ones. According to Stokes sedimentation velocity simulations, the sedimentation velocity of SUS304 particles is higher than that of ZrO2 particles. With an increasing amount of PCA, the sedimentation velocity of the particles decreases. Cyclic thermal shock test results demonstrated that FGMs with metal (SUS304)-rich continuous gradient patterns showed the highest resistance among the samples of FGMs, 5-layered materials and ZrO2 single materials.

Cyclic thermal shock behaviors of carbon fibers reinforced SiCN ceramics with bio-inspired Bouligand-like architectures

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are commonly used for high temperature components in aircrafts. However, thermal shock, as a typical loading case, will cause high thermal stresses in CMCs resulting in brittle fracture failure, and material cracking caused by thermal shock can further reduce the effectiveness of thermal protection function. In the present paper, we propose a bionic hierarchical fiber preform design method to improve the thermal shock resistance of ceramics. The effect of architectures of fiber preforms of continuous carbon fiber-reinforced CMCs on the thermal shock resistance was investigated to understand its importance and the related mechanical mechanisms. Thermal shock (cycling) tests were performed with continuous carbon fibers reinforced SiCN ceramic matrix composites (Cf/SiCN) prepared by PIP. 3D micro-CT scan and three-point bending tests were also conducted to evaluated the resultant damage. The results showed that smaller internal damage and higher thermal shock resistance can be obtained in comparison to pure SiCN ceramics, and the underlying mechanism can be explained by the fact that smaller pitch angle can resist the through-thickness crack propagation via promoting diffused in-plane damage. The present study offers a possibility in developing biomimetic Cf/SiCN ceramics with excellent thermal shock behavior.

Performance Evaluation of Refractory Bodies Fabricated from Composite Oxide Powders Beneficiated from Black Al-dross

Aluminum Oxide (Corundum, α-Al2O3) and Magnesium-Aluminum Oxides (Spinel, MgAl2O4) are highly desired refractory materials due to their ability to withstand high-temperature service conditions without corroding and cracking. They are present in composite form in black Aluminum Dross (Al-dross), a hazardous industrial waste. 1 Kg batch of this composite powder was beneficiated from Al-dross to 98+% purity after removing the hazardous Aluminum Nitride (AlN) by aqueous treatment of Al-dross in an environment-friendly manner. The treated slurry was oven dried, ball milled to fine powder, hydraulically pressed, and sintered at 1500 °C/6 h into solid cylinders (50 mm diameter × 20 mm height). The structural phase analysis of the sintered product (refractory blocks) revealed a highly crystalline XRD pattern with peaks pertaining to only α-Al2O3 and MgAl2O4. The blocks with Rockwell Hardness values of 48–50 HRC, were subjected to thermal shock cycling by following the guidelines of IS 1528 (heat quench between 1000 °C and air at ambient) which successfully withstood > 100 shock cycles without failure. SEM was employed to study the fracture surface in an as-sintered state and after thermal shock cycling, to reveal a fine-grained microstructure with clear grain boundaries in the as-sintered state to a glassy matrix with fine cracks at the end of the thermal shock cycle test. The potential for utilization of Al-dross for refractory applications was thus established.

Hot corrosion and thermal shock performance of nanoparticulate YSZ coatings deposited via suspension plasma spraying (SPS)

In this research, the preparation, and some thermal behaviors of nanoparticulate yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) coatings were assessed. Aqueous suspensions containing YSZ nanoparticles were produced and then used to deposit thermal barrier coatings through the suspension plasma spraying (SPS) method. Cyclic hot corrosion and thermal shock experiments were performed on the coatings in a Na2SO4–Na2VO3 molten salt at 880 °C and under rapid cycles at 1100 °C, respectively. The coating obtained from spraying of the optimal suspension, which includes YSZ nanoparticles dispersed with α-Terpineol as a surfactant, promisingly has a columnar-shaped structure. The lifetimes of this columnar SPS-YSZ coating during the hot corrosion and thermal shock experiments were measured to be 380 h and 120 cycles, respectively, whereas they were 240 h and 100 cycles for a laminar coating obtained from spraying of nonoptimized YSZ. It is concluded that by optimizing the water-based suspension of YSZ nanoparticles, novel thermal barrier coatings with an optimal microstructure can be achieved, which improves the properties of the coating and increases its lifetime.

Improving Glass Transition Temperature and Toughness of Epoxy Adhesives by a Complex Room-Temperature Curing System by Changing the Stoichiometry

The glass transition temperature (Tg) of room-temperature curing epoxy adhesives is limited by the temperature used during curing. It is already known that the excess of epoxy groups can undergo a homopolymerization reaction initiated by tertiary amines at elevated temperatures, resulting in an increase in Tg. However, there is no evidence of this reaction occurring at room temperature. In the present work, the influence of formulation stoichiometry on Tg and mechanical properties was investigated. Dynamomechanical, rheological and mechanical properties of epoxy adhesives were determined by DSC, DMA, rheometer and tensile and shear strength testing. It has been probed that an excess of epoxy resin combined with a complex curing system composed of a primary amine, a polymercaptan and a tertiary amine leads to an increase in Tg up to 70 °C due to the homopolymerization reaction that takes place at room temperature. However, as the excess of epoxy resin is increased, gel time becomes slower. Regarding mechanical properties, it has been proven that an excess of epoxy resin provides a tighter and tougher material but maintains flexibility of the stoichiometric formulation, which is meant to enhance the resistance to impact-type forces, thermal shock and thermal cycling.

Microstructure evolution and thermal shock properties of PEO coatings on a TiAl alloy

In this paper, plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) coatings were produced on Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy in a silicate electrolyte. During the PEO process, four coating growth stages were revealed, which were anodic oxidation (I), breakdown of the anodized film (II), micro-arcing growth (III) and formation of glass phase with coating fusing (IV). It was found that the porous aluminium silicate phase preferentially grew at the Ti3Al regions of the substrate in stage II and the amount of Al2TiO5 phase increased rapidly in stage III. In stage IV, a Si-rich glass phase layer grew rapidly leading to a large increase in coating thickness. The thermal shock tests were conducted for both the substrate and PEO-coated samples from 1123 K to room temperature. The thermal shock resistance study showed that the oxide layer kept growing with the thermal shock cycles on the uncoated TiAl substrate. PEO coatings with predominate Al2TiO5 and aluminium silicate phases can withstand 55 thermal shock cycles without changing. The samples with a thin amorphous anodized layer cannot withstand the internal stress generated during thermal shock cycles due to the weak bond between the outmost layer and the substrate. The coating with thick glass outmost layer also peeled off because of the weak thermal shock resistance of the glass phase. The wear test results showed that, after thermal shock cycles, the PEO coating with suitable thickness and roughness has good wear resistance and potential application in wear protection.

Development of cottonseed-based emulsions for encapsulation of vitamin A

Nanoemulsions are nanoscale self-assembled entities which are manufactured for improving the delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Nanoemulsion technology is one of the best ways to encapsulate the functional components as it enhances the stability and bioavailability of the compound. In the present study, nanoemulsions were prepared by ultrasonic homogenization of dispersed phase (10-22%) and surfactants (3-9%) with vitamin A (0.25-2.5%). Nanoemulsions were characterized through various optical techniques and stability was assessed using thermal shock and freeze-thaw cycle. The results revealed that nanoemulsions with high percentage of surfactants were more stable and retained smaller particle size as compared to nanoemulsions with low surfactants percentage and high dispersed phase, contributed to phase separation and colour change. These emulsions can be further tested for any toxic/allergic effect on the biological model and may be incorporated into food products.

Study on the surface morphology and fractal characteristics of granite under thermal shock of seawater

Geothermal energy has become one of the new energy sources of great concern due to its wide distribution, abundant reserves and green, clean and renewable advantages. In view of the advantages of both geothermal energy development potential and abundant seawater reserves in the coastal areas, granite is taken as the research object, and the surface topography under different temperatures (100?C, 200?C, 300?C, 400?C, and 500?C) and different thermal shock cycles (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20) is obtained. Based on 3-D scanning technology, the damage details of the surface are reconstructed, and the roughness parameters of the surface are obtained. The maximum height, the maximum valley depth and the arithmetic mean height increase with the increase of the temperature and the number of times, but the maximum peak height does not change significantly. Based on fractal theory, the variation law of the fractal dimension is further discussed. The impact regions that affect the fractal dimension and thermal damage are divided: the weak impact region, the transition region, and the significant impact region. It lays a corresponding basic law for the heat exchange efficiency and strength characteristics of dry hot rock.

Thermal fatigue characteristics of 8Y2O3-ZrO2, La2Zr2O7, La2(Zr0.7Ce0.3)2O7 and La2Ce2O7 thermal barrier coatings in duplex, multilayer functionally graded and multilayer configurations

La2Zr2O7, La2(Zr0.7Ce0.3)2O7 and La2Ce2O7 pyrochlore plasma sprayable powders were synthesized and plasma spray coated on steel plates with NiCrAlY bond coat. Three different configurations were used: duplex, multilayer functionally graded and multilayer, with different combinations of commercial 8% yttria stabilized zirconia (8YSZ) and NiCrAlY (bond coat) layers. The prepared coatings were compared with the standard duplex 8YSZ thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) with a goal to study their suitability to serve as TBCs. TBCs? layer thicknesses and interfaces were studied via SEM on polished cross section metallographic samples removed from the spray coated TBCs. Thermal fatigue resistance was evaluated by directing a gas flame on the ceramic surface at 1200 and 1400 ?C, followed by its rapid withdrawal and forced cooling by pedestal fan. The maximum number of thermal shock cycles the coatings could withstand before failure was determined. The multilayered TBCs with lanthanum cerate composition stacked with 8YSZ exhibited the superior thermal fatigue resistance characteristics compared to all other studied TBCs. The findings were correlated with the crystalline phases of the ceramic coatings, obtained via XRD, and discussed in the light of existing literature.

Enhancing the thermal shock resistance of Al2O3-SiC-C castables via the generation of in-situ SiC whiskers

ABSTRACT The demand for Al2O3-SiC-C castables (ASCs) with excellent strength and thermal shock resistance has expanded considerably. Here, the effects of Fe-Si3N4 on the thermal shock resistance and physical properties of ASCs were studied. The addition of Fe-Si3N4 to ASCs lead to the formation of SiC whiskers, enhancing the cold modulus of rupture and the cold crushing strength of the castables. The formed SiC can fill the pores left by the oxidation of carbon after heating at 1450°C for 3 h, thereby improving the bulk density of the castables. Additionally, the residual strength ratio of the castables after three thermal shock cycles was improved and this was attributed to the generation of microcracks due to the release of N2 and the generation of the whiskers. The optimal Fe-Si3N4 content was 4 wt%. Therefore, the results of this study revealed that the thermal shock resistance and physical properties of ASCs were enhanced by the addition of Fe-Si3N4.

Organic-inorganic hybrid network to enhance the electrostatic shielding of multifunctional soybean meal-based adhesive

Static electricity and formaldehyde pollution are not only severely harmful to ecological environment but also seriously affecting human health. It is of great importance but still challenging to develop an eco-friendly and multifunctional adhesive for electrostatic shielding. Protein adhesives were considered to be an effective substitute for formaldehyde resin adhesives, but show poor water resistance and conductive, limiting their practical applications in many fields, such as antistatic materials and antistatic floors. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a multifunctional adhesive by a facile organic-inorganic hybrid network to enhance the electrostatic shielding for antistatic materials. As we expected, the volume resistivity of the resultant adhesive for antistatic floors is only 2.73 × 10 8 Ω·cm, which is five orders of magnitude less than that of soybean meal (SM) adhesive and shows excellent electrostatic shielding performance. After experiencing a rapid thermal shock cycle between two extreme temperature conditions for 30 times, the mechanical performance of adhesive still remained stable. Furthermore, the adhesives are not only eco-friendly and non-formaldehyde, but excellent mildew resistance and flame retardancy. This multifunctional SM-based adhesive opens a new way to replace harmful formaldehyde-based adhesives, which have potential applications in the field of antistatic floors. • A high-performance adhesive was prepared by a facile and green organic-inorganic hybrid strategy for electrostatic shielding. • The multiple bonding structures were formed between protein chains and hydroxylated BT nanoparticles. • The adhesive exhibited mechanical stability under two extreme temperature cycling. • This adhesive could be used for antistatic materials with flame retardance and antimicrobial properties.

Layer-structured Cr/CrxN coating via electroplating-based nitridation achieving high deuterium resistance as the hydrogen permeation barrier

Hydrogen isotope permeation through structural materials is a key issue for developing nuclear fusion energy, which will cause fuel loss and radioactive pollution. Developing ceramic coatings with high thermal shock and hydrogen resistance is an effective strategy to solve this issue. In this work, a layer-structured Cr/CrxN coating was successfully fabricated by a facile electroplating-based nitridation technique, which is easy, facile, and applicable to coating complex-shaped substrates. The Cr/CrxN coating, composed of a bottom Fe/Cr interdiffusion zone, a middle Cr layer, and a top CrxN layer, exhibits high bonding strength, high anti-thermal-shock ability, and high deuterium permeation resistance. Its bonding strength achieves 43.6 MPa. The Cr/CrxN coating remains intact even after suffering 300 thermal shock cycles under a 600 °C-water condition. Through optimizing the nitridation temperature, the Cr/CrxN coating achieves a deuterium permeation reduction factor (PRF) as high as 3599 at 500 °C. Considering its scalable fabrication technique and considerable properties, the developed Cr/CrxN coating may serve as a novel high-performance hydrogen permeation barrier in various fields.

The microstructures and properties of Fe2O3 and TiO2 co-doped corundum ceramics for solar thermal absorbing materials

Solar thermal absorbing materials are the key components of concentrating solar power. In this study, Fe2O3 and TiO2 co-doped corundum ceramics were prepared by pressureless sintering. The effects of different Fe2O3/TiO2 ratios on the phase composition, microstructure, thermal shock resistance and solar absorptance were investigated via XRD and EPMA testing. The results showed that, with the decrease of Fe2O3/TiO2 ratio, the appropriate amount of FeAlTiO5 would decompose into ferrite particles, which played a bridging role between the corundum grains making the samples have excellent thermal shock resistance. A6 (90% bauxite, 9.5% Fe2O3 and 0.5% TiO2) sintered at 1460 °C had the optimum comprehensive properties, with a bending strength of 154.80 MPa and an absorptance of 89.20% in the spectral range from 0.3 to 2.5 μm. After 30 thermal shock cycles (1000 °C–25 °C, air-cooled), the bending strength of A6 was 222.05 MPa, and the absorptance was 90.40%, which were 43.44% and 1.35% higher than those before thermal shock, respectively. Therefore, it was suitable as an excellent solar thermal absorbing materials.

Research on the Mechanism of Cathode Failure of Lead-Acid Battery Under Extreme Conditions

Abstract Lead-acid batteries have the advantages of wide temperature adaptability, large discharge power, and high safety factor. It is still widely used in electrochemical energy storage systems. In order to ensure the application of batteries under extreme working conditions, it is necessary to explore the degradation mechanism. In this study, the experimental battery is the same type of 2 V-500 Ah lead-acid battery produced by different manufacturers. First, the three batteries were subjected to the same high temperature and high current cycle thermal shock test (50 °C, 0.2 C current) combined with quantitative analysis of plate active material and microscopic morphology observation. In addition, numerical studies are used to simulate the distribution of electrical parameters on the positive plate and grid. The above three parts are combined to study the causes of accelerated battery decay under high temperature and high current conditions. The results showed that the extreme conditions aggravated the non-uniformity of the potential distribution of the positive plate and the grid, which increased by 10.62% and 51.59%, respectively. The battery with higher remaining capacity has more α-PbO2 in the active material, and has a considerable amount of β-PbO2. The battery with the smallest remaining capacity has the largest volume of active material. The volume of the material affects the electrochemical reaction surface area. The larger the volume of the material, the higher the resistance of that part, which will lead to an increase in the overall impedance of the battery.