Cut Carnation Flowers Research Articles

Physiological response and extension of vase life of cut carnation flowers treated with ethanol and acetaldehyde. II. Protein content and enzyme activity

Ethanol and acetaldehyde both prevent the formation of ethylene bysenescing cut carnation flowers. This is due to the almost complete inhibitionof the activity of 1-aminocyclopropane-carboxylic acid oxidase. Thesetreatmentsalso reduce the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid content of the tissue andresult in a loss of protein. The protein content of treated flowers wassignificantly lower than that of control flowers, due to a general rather thanspecific loss of protein. This affects the metabolism of the flowers,preventingenzyme mediated reactions as well as cell growth and development. One enzymethat remained active was alcohol dehydrogenase, allowing for a constantshuttling between ethanol and acetaldehyde.

Physiological response and extension of vase life of cut carnation flowers treated with ethanol and acetaldehyde. I. Chlorophyll content and carbohydrate status

Acetaldehyde and ethanol, when applied as low concentration holding solutions both extend the vase life of cut carnation flowers. A major morphological disturbance within the flowers partly responsible for this longevity increase is the inhibition of ovary development. In normally senescing flowers the ovary acts as a carbohydrate sink within the system. They gain in carbohydrate and chlorophyll content during the senescence process. The application of ethanol or acetaldehyde prevents the increase in chlorophyll in all flower organs. In the ovary itself there is a severe reduction in the amount of chlorophyll present, suggesting that these treatments are detrimental to the chloroplasts. The ovaries of treated flowers also show a marked decrease in carbohydrate content, indicating that the ovary is no longer acting as a carbohydrate sink. Nevertheless there is still a gradual carbohydrate loss from the petals. This implies the development of a new sink within the system, or that the carbohydrates from both organs are being used for cellular metabolism and flower longevity. The latter seems more likely as ethanol-treated flowers still exhibited climacteric respiration, although at a reduced rate. Thus with no photosynthates to drive the system energy must be obtained from other sources within the flower such as the ovary and petals.

Preservative solutions containing boric acid delay senescence of carnation flowers

We investigated the effect of a preservative solution containing boric acid on the senescence of cut carnation flowers (Dianthus caryophyllus L. cv. Master). A 24-h pulse treatment with the preservative solution containing 50, 75 or 100 mM boric acid or continuous treatment with 1 mM boric acid resulted in strong inhibition of the climacteric ethylene production. Both the pulse and continuous treatments significantly increased flower longevity. Free and conjugated 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) and ACC oxidase activity increased in carnation petals during senescence, although significantly less in boric acid-treated carnations than in control flowers. The levels of putrescine increased as senescence progressed in both control and boric acid-treated carnations and an increase in spermidine levels was higher in treated carnations. Abscisic acid levels in petals also increased during senescence, but much less in boric acid-treated carnations. It is concluded that boric acid prevents the early rise in ethylene production and considerably improves carnation vase life.

Method of Forcing Carnations to Bloom to Meet Special Market Demand

A technique of forcing bloom of carnation for special market demand was developed. It enables ornamental growers to produce a large amount of cut carnation flowers during the intended period at a low cost. The outline of the technique is as follows. 1) Pinching shoots at the higher node and level them. By this treatment, many axillary buds start to grow simultaneously. 2) Carrying out shoot thinning and temperature control based on the degree of shoot growth. The date of budding, the bud size and the distance from the top of the pre-budding stem to the tip of the leaves can be used as indices for the estimation of growth and for the prediction of the flowering time. During the intended period of 12 days, the cut flower yield by this technique was as high as 20 stems per stock and 134 stems in each 1 m2 bed area using standard type carnation cv. ‘Francesco’. The appropriate time of the last pinching extended from the end of October to the middle of November in the warmer regions of Japan. In addition to the advantage of cost reduction by decreasing the number of carnation seedlings and fuel expenditure, this technique is suitable for continuous culture for 3 years.

Role of the gynoecium in natural senescence of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) flowers

Although the role of the gynoecium in natural senescence of the carnation flower has long been suggested, it has remained a matter of dispute because petal senescence in the cut carnation flower was not delayed by the removal of gynoecium. In this study, the gynoecium was snapped off by hand, in contrast to previous investigations where removal was achieved by forceps or scissors. The removal of the gynoecium by hand prevented the onset of ethylene production and prolonged the vase life of the flower, demonstrating a decisive role of the gynoecium in controlling natural senescence of the carnation flower. Abscisic acid (ABA) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which induced ethylene production and accelerated petal senescence in carnation flowers, did not stimulate ethylene production in the flowers with gynoecia removed (-Gyn flowers). Application of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC), the ethylene precursor, induced substantial ethylene production and petal wilting in the flowers with gynoecia left intact, but was less effective at stimulating ethylene production in the -Gyn flowers and negligible petal in-rolling was observed. Exogenous ethylene induced autocatalytic production of the gas and petal wilting in the -Gyn flowers. These results indicated that ethylene generated in the gynoecium triggers the onset of ethylene production in the petals of carnation during natural senescence.

ＳＴＳ溶液を加用したゲル状給水材の輸送中処理によるカーネーション切り花の鮮度保持と品質保持期間の延長

Cut carnations were subjected to simulated wet transport with their stem bases in a pickle containing a gelling agent with 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8mM silver thiosulfate (STS) solution for 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 hr at 25°C in the dark to examine the retention of freshness and prolongation of vase life. The amount of water absorbed by cut carnation flowers from the pickle was about 20-30% less than that taken up from deionized water. However, the fresh weight of both groups of cut flowers increased by almost the same amount during transportation. Flowers transported in the pickle maintained their freshness as much as the flowers transported in deionized water but those transported in a dry condition lost moisture and wilted. Vase life of cut carnations transported in the pickle with STS solution lasted longer than that of the flowers transported in the pickle without STS or those transported dry. The data reveal that cut carnation flowers absorb Ag from the pickle with STS solution. The vase life of cut flowers treated with the pickle with STS solution or STS solution alone was affected by the quantity of Ag absorption, and not by the means of absorbing Ag. We recommended that STS concentration be added to a pickle to extend vase life, was 0.2 mM, when the transportation period was 6-12 hr.

小売店におけるスプレーカーネーション切り花の品質評価と品質保持期間，体内水分率および器官別糖含有量の関係

Cut flowers of the spray type carnation 'Light Pink Barbara' graded as : high(H), middle(M) and the low(L) in a flower market were investigated with respect to their vase life, fresh weight, and water and sugar contents in the floral organs. 1. Total fresh weight, percent water content and water absorption were highest in H and lowest in L throughout the experiment. 2. Buds of H and M opened normally within 10 days, whereas those of L blasted ; vase life in H and L were 15 and 10 days, respectively. 3. Petals of H and M conteined 11 to 13 mg/100mg dry weight (DW) of glucose and fructose, respectively, at the beginning of the experiment ; the concentration in H decreased to about 8 mg/100g DW within four days and sustained this level, whereas in M, they decreased to about 4 and 6 mg/100g DW by the end of the experiment. Petals of L contained 4 and 6 mg/100g of glucose and fructose, respectively, throughout the experiment. 4. Sucrose contents of leaves were 10 mg/100mg in H, 12 mg/100mg in M and about 2 mg/100mg in L ; fructose and glucose contents were about 1 mg/100mg in the grades. These levels persisted throughout the experiment in leaves of all grades. 5. Sucrose contents in stem of the three grades ranged between 4 to 6 mg/100mg DW throughout the experiment ; glucose content decreased from 2 mg to 0.5 mg/100mg during the same period. 6. When cut flowers were treated with silver thiosulphate, a substantial amount of silver was detected in petals, indicating that a significant uptake of the solution occurred. These results indicate the high water content percent of the cut flower with high fructose and glucose contents in the petals contribute to long vase life in spray carnation treated with silver.

Is Acetaldehyde the Causal Agent in the Retardation of Carnation Flower Senescence by Ethanol?

Summary A 3 % ethanol holding solution inhibits the conversion of 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid (ACC) to ethylene, and doubles the vase-life of cut carnation flowers. Although the most effective concentration varies during experimentation, high concentrations of ethanol have negative effects. The most pronounced of these is the death of the ovary. Ethanol levels are much higher in the ovaries of treated flowers, than control flowers. A large amount of acetaldehyde was detected in the ovaries of treated flowers. Acetaldehyde was also detected in all other floral organs tested. Acetaldehyde is present in the head-space surrounding ethanol treated flowers, but not control flowers. This indicates that some of the ethanol applied as a post-harvest treatment is broken down to acetaldehyde, within the plant tissue, and released into the micro-atmosphere by the flower. If the conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde is impeded, using an inhibitor of alcohol dehydrogenase, 4-methyl pyrazole, ethanol is no longer effective. Acetaldehyde, (1 and 3 %), as a holding solution, gave similar results as a 3 % ethanol holding solution. It appears that acetaldehyde, produced from ethanol, is the causal agent for the retardation of carnation flower senescence.

The use of acetaldehyde to control carnation flower longevity

Acetaldehyde is the causal agent of ethanol-induced longevity increases in carnation cut flowers. It increases the vase life of cut carnation flowers by at least 50%. The capacity of acetaldehyde to regulate carnation flower senescence was therefore investigated. Ethylene formation was reduced or inhibited as a result of acetaldehyde application. There was, however, no prevention of ethylene action. The morphological development of the ovary was also inhibited, thus eliminating the movement of metabolites from the petals. The potential use of acetaldehyde as a post-harvest treatment is however impractical, due to the inefficiency of pulse treatments and ineffectiveness in preventing the action of exogenous ethylene.

Effect of Calcium Nitrate Addition to .ALPHA.-Aminoisobutyric Acid (AIB) on the Prolongation of the Vase Life of Cut Carnation Flowers.

The effect of calcium nitrate addition to α-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) on the vase life of cut carnation flowers (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) in continuous treatment and pretreatment was investigated. In the continuous treatment, the addition of 2.5 mM calcium nitrate to 10 mM AIB significantly prolonged the vase life of 'Soana' cut flowers, relative to the control or 10 mM AIB or 2.5 mM calcium nitrate alone. This combination treatment was as effective as 20 mM AIB solution in extending vase life of carnations. In the pretreatment trials, an exposure to 60 mM AIB for 21 or 24 hours significantly extended the vase life of 'Nora', relative to the control. Exposure of cut flowers to 60 mM AIB+10 mM calcium nitrate solution for 21 or 24 hours enhanced the vase life by 20% or 14%, respectively over 60 mM AIB alone, but the calcium nitrate effect was not significant. The results of this study suggest that the addition of calcium nitrate to AIB promotes the AIB uptake in cut carnation flowers.

Effects of hypoxia on respiration and the onset of senescence in cut carnation flowers (Dianthus caryophyllus L.)

Abstract Oxygen concentrations ranging between 1.62 and 5.01 kPa O2 reduced the rate of CO2 evolution in cut carnation flowers (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) and, more importantly, delayed the onset of senescence. The suppressive effects of low O2 on respiration could not be ascribed to the restriction of mitochondrial terminal oxidases. An O2 concentration of 2.02 kPa totally suppressed the onset of the climacteric rise in CO2 evolution and increased the vase life of flowers twofold over that of flowers treated with STS, indicating that the retarding effects of hypoxia on the onset of senescence transcend its inhibitory effects on the action of C2H4. Hypoxia diminished the effects of exogenously applied C2H4 on the rate of CO2 evolution and appeared to retard the rate at which the usual morphological symptoms associated with petal senescence occurred. Rapid wilting, concomitant with the climacteric, was a facet of C2H4 action and coincided with a decrease in water uptake. The latter could not be ascribed to the obstruction of vascular bundles but rather to the inability of petals to absorb water. It is suggested that the sudden increase in water loss may be the result of an C2H4-induced increase in hydraulic conductivity of the petals.

Effects of spermine on ethylene biosynthesis in cut carnation ( Dianthus caryophyllus L) flowers during senescence

To investigate the relationship between polyamine and ethylene during senescence of cut carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) flowers, we studied the effects of spermine on ethylene biosynthesis. Spermine delayed the senescence of cut carnation flowers and reduced ethylene production, endogenous 1-aminocy-clopropane-l-carboxylic acid (ACQ content, and the activities and transcript amounts of ACC synthase and ACC oxidase in petals. Methylglyoxal bis-(guanylhydrazone) (MGBG), an inhibitor of polyamine biosynthesis, elevated ethylene production, increased activities and amounts of transcripts for ACC synthase and ACC oxidase, and shifted the climacteric pattern of ethylene production ahead by 1 day. However, endogenous ACC content was not increased in the petals of MGBG-treated flowers because of the high activity of ACC oxidase. Spermine also inhibited MGBG-induced ethylene production by decreasing the activities and amounts of transcripts for ACC synthase and ACC oxidase. The accumulation of transcripts for ACC synthase and ACC oxidase in MGBG-treated and in climacteric control petals was correlated with the increase of these enzyme activities. By comparing ethylene production with the changes of endogenous polyamine levels from control and MGBG- or spermine-treated petals during the entire incubation period, it was suggested that endogenous polyamines possibly suppress ethylene production.

Ethylene biosynthetic genes are differentially expressed during carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) flower senescence.

Ethylene production and expression patterns of an 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) oxidase (CARAO1) and of two ACC synthase (EC 4.4.1.14) genes (CARACC3 and CARAS1) were studied in floral organs of cut carnation flowers (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cv. White Sim. During the vase life and after treatment of fresh flowers with ethylene, production of ethylene and expression of ethylene biosynthetic genes first started in the ovary followed by the styles and the petals. ACC oxidase was expressed in all the floral organs whereas, during the vase life, tissue-specific expression of the two ACC synthase genes was observed. After treatment with a high ethylene concentration, tissue specificity of the two ACC synthase genes was lost and only a temporal difference in expression remained. In styles, poor correlation between ethylene production and ACC synthase (CARAS1) gene expression was observed suggesting that either activity is regulated at the translational level or that the CARAS1 gene product requires an additional factor for activity. Isolated petals showed no increase in ethylene production and expression of ethylene biosynthetic genes when excised from the flower before the increase in petal ethylene production (before day 7); showed rapid cessation of ethylene production and gene expression when excised during the early phase of petal ethylene production (day 7) and showed a pattern of ethylene production and gene expression similar to the pattern observed in the attached petals when isolated at day 8. The interorgan regulation of gene expression and ethylene as a signal molecule in flower senescence are discussed.

Effects of 1,1-dimethyl-4-(phenylsulfonyl)semicarbazide (DPSS) on carnation flower longevity

The effects of a novel preservative for cut carnation flowers, 1,1-dimethyl-4-(phenylsulfonyl)semicarbazide (DPSS), were investigated. DPSS extended the vase life of cut carnation flowers not only by continuous treatment but pulse treatment as well. This inhibition of senescence by DPSS appeared to depend on that of ethylene production in carnation flowers. DPSS provided no protection from the action of ethylene nor did it inhibit 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase. It did inhibit ACC-dependent ethylene production in carnation petal discs, suggesting possible potential for inhibiting ACC oxidase.

Effects of hypoxia on cut carnation flowers (Dianthus caryophyllus L.): longevity, ability to survive under anoxia, and activities of alcohol dehydrogenase and pyruvate kinase

Carnation flowers (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) were kept at 18 °C in the dark, either in air, or 1.22 or 2.74 kPa O2. Hypoxia induced an increase and decline in the extractable activities of ADH and PK, respectively. Neither of the levels of O2 increased the rate of ethanol evolution. Upon transferring the flowers to anoxia, there was an increase in ADH activity in all treatments, but flowers pretreated with hypoxia maintained a higher level of activity than did the normoxic ones. The rate of ethanol evolution under anoxia was inversely related to the pretreatment concentrations of O2. The activity of PK decreased under anoxia in all treatments. Hypoxic pretreatments enhanced the viability of flowers in anoxia. The increase in ADH activity in flower petals kept under 1.22 kPa O2 was due to the increase in the Adh1 isoform. The same O2 concentration decreased the rate of CO2 evolution by about 30% below the preclimacteric minimum of the controls. Furthermore, it completely suppressed the rise in C2H4 evolution and prolonged the vase-life of the flowers to 53 days, i.e. about 7.5-fold more than that of the air samples.

Transient water stress in cut carnation flowers: effects of cycloheximide

Transient exposure (24 h) of cut carnation flowers ( Dianthus caryophyllus L., cv. ‘White Sim’) to water stress led to early wilting, accompanied by increased membrane permeability to electrolytes and advanced ethylene production. A 24 h treatment of non-stressed cut flowers and isolated petals with cycloheximide (CHI), resulted in a delay in wilting, reduction of membrane permeability, inhibition of protein synthesis and ethylene production and an increase in electrolyte content. Cut flowers and isolated petals exposed to water stress following pretreatment with CHI showed moderated responses to water deficit stress, including higher water potential, compared with those observed in untreated stressed flowers. The results indicate that the response of cut flowers to transient water stress may be dependent on protein synthesis.

Toward a Comprehensive Model for Lipid Peroxidation in Plant Tissue Disorders

of cotyledon senescence on the composition and physical properties of membrane lipids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 508:197–212. McKersie, B.D. and J.E. Thompson. 1979. Phase properties of senescing plant membranes. Role of neutral lipids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 550:48–58. Pauls, K.P. and J.E. Thompson. 1984. Evidence for the accumulation of peroxidized lipids in membranes of senescing cotyledons. Plant Physiol. 75:1152–1157. Platt-Aloia, K. and W.W. Thomson. 1985. Freeze-fracture evidence of gelphase lipid in membranes of senescing cowpea cotyledons. Planta 163:360– 369. Tappel, A.L. 1975. Lipid peroxidation and fluorescent molecular damage to membranes, p. 145–170. In: B.F. Trump and A. Arstila (eds.). Pathobiology of cell membranes. Academic, New York. Thompson, J.E., R.L. Legge, and R.F. Barber. 1987. The role of free radicals in senescence and wounding. New Phytol. 105:317–344. Thompson, J.E., S. Mayak, M. Shinitzky, and A.H. Halevy. 1982. Acceleration of membrane senescence in cut carnation flowers by treatment with ethylene. Plant Physiol. 69:859–863. Wilhelm, J. and N. Wilhelnova. 1981. Accumulation of lipofuscin-like pigments in chloroplasts from senescent leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris. Photosynthetica 15:55–60. Wray, W.W., T. Bovikas, V.P. Wray, and R. Hancock. 1981. Silver staining of proteins in polyacrylamide gels. Anal. Biochem. 118:197–203. Yao, K., G. Paliyath, R.W. Humphrey, F.R. Hallett, and J.E. Thompson. 1991a. Identification and characterization of nonsedimentable lipid–protein microvesicles. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:2269–2273. Yao, K., G. Paliyath, and J.E. Thompson. 1991b. Nonsedimentable microvesicles from senescing bean cotyledons contain gel phase-forming phospholipid degradation products. Plant Physiol. 97:502–508. Yao, K., G. Paliyath, and J.E. Thompson. 1993a. Localization of peroxidized lipids in nonsedimentable microvesicles of senescing bean cotyledons. J. Expt. Bot. 44:1267–1274. Yao, K. and J.E. Thompson. 1993. Enrichment of proteinase activity in deteriosomes, a new class of microvesicles. FEBS Lett. 323:99–103. Yao, K., X. Wu, J.E. Thompson, and J.C. Carlson. 1993b. Isolation and characterization of deteriosomes from rat liver. J. Cell Physiol. 51:488–494.

Effect of high numbers of exogenous bacteria on the water relations and longevity of cut carnation flowers

Abstract High bacterial counts in the vase water can shorten flower longevity. The length of vase life of cut carnation flowers ( Dianthus caryophyllus L., cvs. Scania and White Sim) was reduced by placing the stems in a suspension of bacteria, when the initial exogenous concentration was 10 8 or more colony-forming units (cfu) per milliliter. The suspensions contained either the mixed bacterial population isolated from carnation stems held in water for ten days (about 50% Pseudomonas spp., 20% Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and 20% Alcaligenes sp.), or were pure culture isolates ( Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and Pseudomonas fluorescens ). The composition of the bacterial flora had no effect on longevity. The reduction in flower longevity was related to inhibition of water uptake. It is concluded that high bacterial counts in water reduce the longevity of the carnation cultivars tested. Although such high counts may not be common in vase water in consumers' homes, counts that negatively affect longevity were observed in water used for standing carnation flowers, both in specialised flower shops (in 7% of the samples) and in supermarkets (in 12% of the samples).

Differential respiratory and morphological responses of carnations pulsed or continuously treated with silver thiosulfate

The effect of pulse or continuous silver thiosulfate treatment of cut carnation flowers ( Dianthus caryophyllus L. cv. Elliott's White) on ethylene action was investigated. Flowers were treated either with a 2.0 mM silver thiosulfate 2 h pulse or continuously with 0.2 mM silver thiosulfate and exposed to 0.1–10.0 μl l −1 ethylene. Reciprocally, flowers pulsed with 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 mM silver thiosulfate were treated with either 4.0 or 8.0 μl l −1 ethylene. Petal tissues were separated into basal and apical segments and assayed for silver ions by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Although increased respiration occurred in flowers pulsed with 1.0 or 2.0 mM silver thiosulfate, no morphological changes symptomatic of floral senescence accompanied this increase. Flowers continuously treated with 0.2 mM silver thiosulfate exhibited no morphological or respiratory responses to any concentration of exogenous ethylene, whereas both a respiratory increase and irreversible petal wilting were observed in flowers pulsed with 0.5 mM silver thiosulfate. Best fit regression analysis of this data suggests that the interaction between silver ions and ethylene is competitive. The differential distribution of silver ions between basal and apical regions of pulsed or continuously treated petals indicates that the petal base may play an important role in regulating carnation petal senescence.

ＳＴＳ溶液のＡｇＮＯ３とＮａ２Ｓ２Ｏ３・５Ｈ２Ｏの混合比率がカーネーション切り花の銀の吸収と分布および品質保持期間に及ぼす影響

Cut carnation flower stems were immersed in solutions of silver thiosulfate (STS) having Ag to thiosulfate ratios of 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 1 : 4, 1 : 8, 1 : 16 and 1 : 32. The solutions were prepared by mixing AgNO3 and Na2S2O3•5H2O to give a final Ag+ concentration of 1 mM or 0.2 mM. Ag chelate in the solutions with high ratios of thiosulfate to Ag, i. e. 1 : 8 to 1 : 32, was quite stable, whereas at ratios of 1 : 1 to 1 : 4, it was not.1. Ag was detected in the flower head by atomic absorption analysis after cut carnations were treated with the solutions at ratios from 1 : 2 to 1 : 32. It was not detectable in the flower head when treated with AgNO3 solution alone (1 : 0). All or most of Ag was located in the lower stem when stems were treated with solutions having a ratio of 1 : 0 or 1 : 1.2. The amount of Ag translocated to the carnation flower head was closely associated with vase life. Treatment of cut flowers with solutions at the ratios of 1 : 4 to 1 : 32 doubled the vase life compared with flowers treated with deionized water. The solutions with ratios of 1 : 4 to 1 : 32 were equally effective in prolonging vase life. Treatment with the solutions with ratios of 1 : 0 to 1 : 2 extended vase life only slightly.3. Injury to upper leaves increased proportionally with the increase in Ag accumulation and with the increasing ratios of thiosulfate to Ag. Leaf injury symptoms appeared when stems were immersed in 1 mM Ag solutions.Thus, to extend the vase life of carnations we recommend the use of a 1 : 8 molar ratio of AgNO3 to Na2S2O3•5H2O in the STS solution.