Custody Arrangements Research Articles

Mothers’ Economic Well-Being in Sole and Joint Physical Custody Families

Previous research has repeatedly shown that separation or divorce can lead to a substantial decline in economic resources, and that it is mostly mothers who suffer from the severe economic consequences. Because it has also been established that the post-separation care arrangement that a family practices is a central factor in explaining mothers’ poor economic situations after family dissolution, this study investigated the association between physical custody arrangements (sole physical custody, asymmetric joint physical custody, and symmetric joint physical custody) and the economic well-being of 1018 residential mothers from the Family Models in Germany study. The results of the ordered logistic regression models showed that mothers in asymmetric and symmetric joint physical custody families reported higher levels of economic well-being than mothers with sole physical custody. When controlling for a set of confounders, the differences between mothers with sole physical custody and symmetric joint physical custody disappeared, which suggests that the economic advantages of mothers with symmetric joint physical custody can be fully explained by factors like the mothers’ working hours, their personal net income, their partnership status, and the fairness of their financial arrangement with their former partner. In contrast, the relationship between asymmetric joint physical custody and mothers’ economic situations remained significant even after control variables were included in the regression models. However, the question of what role selection processes among parents play in explaining the observed differences in post-separation economic well-being between mothers in sole and joint physical custody families remains open.

The relation between joint physical custody, interparental conflict, and children's mental health

Objective: This study investigated the relationship between joint physical custody and children’s mental health, and tested whether interparental conflict moderated the association.
 Background: Joint physical custody is an emerging post-separation care arrangement that is expected to counter the negative effects of family dissolution on children’s overall well-being. There is, however, substantial disagreement about the impact that joint physical custody may have on children’s mental health when interparental conflict is high.
 Method: The statistical analysis was based on data from the Family Models in Germany (FAMOD) study, which was conducted in 2019. The analytical sample consisted of 1,087 post-separation families practicing either sole physical custody or joint physical custody. Linear regression models were estimated to determine the relationship between physical custody arrangements, interparental conflict, and children’s mental health problems.
 Results: Living in a joint physical custody arrangement was positively related to children's mental health, whereas high levels of interparental conflict were negatively related to children's mental health. However, when levels of interparental conflict were high children in joint physical custody arrangements displayed levels of mental health problems that were quite similar to those of children in sole physical custody arrangements.
 Conclusion: The findings emphasize that joint physical custody is not a "one-size-fits-all model" that is suitable for all post-separation families, and that it is only beneficial for children's mental health when interparental conflict is low.

Profiles of Maternal Well-Being in Germany: Do Post-Separation Physical Custody Arrangements Matter?

ABSTRACT A higher share of parents practices shared physical custody (SPC) upon separation and SPC parents tend to be better educated, more affluent, and less conflict-ridden. This could indicate that SPC parents may be buffered from disparities in well-being that were documented among other post-separation parents. Using latent profile analysis, we identified four distinct profiles of maternal well-being across different life domains. SPC mothers were indeed more likely to belong to a low-strain profile and less likely to belong to a high-strain profile compared to single mothers. We conclude that social disparities both among and between post-separation parents remain highly salient, despite trends toward growing diversity in family constellations, and discuss German welfare state characteristics that may foster these differences.

Children’s Experiences of Stress in Joint Physical Custody

BackgroundJoint physical custody is a parental care arrangement in which children live roughly an equal amount of time with each parent after family dissolution, residing alternately in each of the two parental households. Because joint physical custody is characterised by fathers’ continued involvement in their children’s lives, this care arrangement is believed to compensate for the negative effects of family dissolution, and to contribute to children’s well-being in post-separation families.ObjectiveThis study aims to investigate potential differences in the experiences of stress of children living in joint physical custody and sole physical custody arrangements, while considering both the proportion of time the children spend with each of their parents and the number of transitions the children make between the parental households.MethodsBased on data from the Family Models in Germany (FAMOD) study, a national convenience sample, linear regression models were estimated for 297 children between the ages of 11 and 14.ResultsThe statistical analysis suggests that there was no significant association between the physical custody type (sole physical custody vs. joint physical custody) and the children’s levels of stress. In addition, the results revealed that children’s experiences of stress did not depend on how often they moved between their parents’ households.ConclusionsThis study does not corroborate the assumption that joint physical custody has a protective effect on children, but instead suggests that different physical custody arrangements are associated with different stressors that lead to similar levels of stress in children living in different post-separation families.

Through the Ivory Curtain: African Americans in Cleveland Heights, Ohio, before the Fair Housing Movement

This article examines the largely neglected history of African American struggles to obtain housing in Cleveland Heights, a first-ring suburb of Cleveland, Ohio, between 1900 and 1960, prior to the fair housing and managed integration campaigns that emerged thereafter. The article explores the experiences of black live-in servants, resident apartment building janitors, independent renters, and homeowners. It offers a rare look at the ways that domestic and custodial arrangements opened opportunities in housing and education, as well as the methods, calculations, risks, and rewards of working through white intermediaries to secure homeownership. It argues that the continued black presence laid a foundation for later advances beginning in the 1960s that made Cleveland Heights, like better-known Shaker Heights, a national model for suburban racial integration.

Operational Due Diligence on Cryptocurrency and Digital Asset Funds

This article analyzes three key trends that have emerged among institutional investors performing operational due diligence (ODD) on cryptocurrency and digital asset funds. The first trend is enhanced crypto-specific ODD specialization as compared to other alternative asset classes. The second trend is an institutional focus on crypto custody arrangements. The third trend is a rapid movement toward integrating ODD and investigative due diligence processes in the crypto space.

Birth order and socioeconomic disadvantage predict behavioural and emotional problems at age 3 years.

The aim of this study was to describe sociodemographic and family predictors for behavioural and emotional problems in pre-schoolers. This was a cross-sectional study including 30,795 children in the Stockholm region whose parents had completed the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) prior to a routine visit to a well-baby clinic at age 3years. Multivariate logistic regression was used to analyse predictors for having a high total SDQ difficulties score. Young parental age and a low level of parental education predicted high total SDQ score in a stepwise pattern. Being a first-born child was associated with a high SDQ score with an adjusted odds ratio of 2.10 (95% C.I. 1.84-2.41), compared with having older siblings. A sole physical custody arrangement predicted a high total SDQ score after parental separation. The percentage of children with a high total SDQ score increased with the Care Need Index (CNI) of the well-baby clinic. This study identified socioeconomic disadvantage and being the first-born child as the main predictors of poor mental health at age 3years. Well-baby clinics with socioeconomically disadvantaged catchment areas should be provided with adequate resources and methods for equitable prevention.

How do children and adolescents of separated parents sleep? An investigation of custody arrangements, sleep habits, sleep problems, and sleep duration in Sweden

ObjectivesAn increasing number of children and adolescents divide their time between their separated parents’ homes. Although marital conflict is disadvantageous for children's sleep, little is known about how children of separated parents sleep. The objective was to investigate the association between children's custody arrangements and sleep habits and sleep initiation difficulties. DesignCross sectional nationally representative samples of adolescents from the WHO study Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) (n = 11,802). SettingSweden in 2013/2014 and 2017/2018. ParticipantsAdolescents in grades 5, 7, and 9 from Swedish compulsory comprehensive school. MeasurementsThe survey included questions on sleep behaviors including bedtime, wake-up time and frequency of sleep onset problems. The analysis methods used were ordinary least squares and logistic regression. ResultsThe results show differences by custody arrangement, but they are not uniform across the dependent variables. Children and adolescents in sole maternal custody were less likely to sleep as much as recommended (P < .001), more likely to have late bedtimes (P < .001), report sleep initiation difficulties (P < .01) and to report social jetlag between school mornings and weekends (P < .05) compared to those in 2-parent families. Shared physical custody was associated with a higher likelihood of late bedtimes (P < .05) and sleep initiation difficulties (P < .05) compared to those in 2-parent families, but not of sleeping less than recommended or reporting social jetlag. Less-than-equal sharing was generally associated with worse sleep than in 2-parent families. ConclusionsAs custody arrangements seem to be associated with sleep, it is important to understand the mechanisms behind the findings.

Feasibility, reliability and validity of the health-related quality of life instrument Child Health Utility 9D (CHU9D) among school-aged children and adolescents in Sweden

BackgroundThis study was conducted in a general population of schoolchildren in Sweden, with the aim to assess the psychometric properties of a generic preference-based health related quality of life (HRQoL) instrument, the Swedish Child Health Utility 9D (CHU9D), among schoolchildren aged 7–15 years, and in subgroups aged 7–9, 10–12 and 13–15 years.MethodsIn total, 486 school aged children, aged 7–15 years, completed a questionnaire including the CHU9D, the Pediatric quality of life inventory 4.0 (PedsQL), KIDSCREEN-10, questions on general health, long-term illness, and sociodemographic characteristics. Psychometric testing was undertaken of feasibility, internal consistency reliability, test–retest reliability, construct validity, factorial validity, concurrent validity, convergent validity and divergent validity.ResultsThe CHU9D evidenced very few missing values, minimal ceiling, and no floor effects. The instrument achieved satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alfa > 0.7) and strong test–retest reliability (r > 0.6). Confirmatory factor analyses supported the proposed one-factor structure of the CHU9D. For child algorithm, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, and SRMR = 0.04. For adult algorithm RMSEA = 0.04, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, and SRMR = 0.04. The CHU9D utility value correlated moderately or strongly with KIDSCREEN-10 and PedsQL total scores (r > 0.5–0.7). The CHU9D discriminated as anticipated on health and on three of five sociodemographic characteristics (sex, age, and custody arrangement, but not socioeconomic status and ethnic origin).ConclusionsThis study provides evidence that the Swedish CHU9D is a feasible, reliable and valid measure of preference-based HRQoL in children. The study furthermore suggests that the CHU9D is appropriate for use among children 7–15 years of age in the general population, as well as among subgroups aged 7– 9, 10–12 and 13–15 years.

Divorced and separated parents during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID‐19 pandemic has caused significant stress for individuals, couples, and families. Divorced and separated couples with children face unique stresses amid the pandemic. This mixed‐methods study explored these challenges among 296 divorced and separated parents: namely 204 women formerly partnered with men, 34 men formerly partnered with women, and 58 women formerly partnered with women, who were surveyed during Summer/Fall of 2020. Participants described legal, financial, and coparenting challenges. Those who were not yet divorced described difficulties filing for or finalizing their divorce because of court closures and lack of responsiveness from legal professionals. Those who were already divorced also faced legal challenges, such as being unable to obtain a court date to modify custody arrangements. Financial challenges included renegotiating financial support obligations in the context of job loss. Salient coparenting conflicts, explored through closed‐ and open‐ended questions, included communication issues, different views on virus risk mitigation behaviors, financial issues (especially for those not yet divorced), and transitioning between households and handling remote schooling (especially for those with shared physical custody). Participants elaborated on COVID‐19‐specific challenges, revealing that (a) lack of communication or agreement regarding shared strategies for risk mitigation reflected and exacerbated challenging dynamics between coparents, (b) remote schooling was often the site of disagreement when one parent felt that they were doing more than their fair share of coordination and oversight, and (c) different perspectives on science were expected to lead to future contention when making a joint decision about whether to vaccinate children. Findings have implications for family and legal professionals working with divorced, divorcing, and separated parents.

Power dynamics in families affected by parental alienation

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to apply interdependence theory to understand the power dynamics in families affected by parental alienation. We hypothesized that the power dynamics between alienating and alienated parents are imbalanced such that this form of family violence (Harman et al., 2018) more closely resembles intimate terrorism than situational couple violence, where power dynamics are more similar between partners. We also hypothesized that shared parenting custodial arrangements would afford more power to targeted parents than unequal parenting plans and provide them with more opportunities for action. A qualitative analysis of transcripts from interviews with targeted parents of alienating behaviors (n = 79) using interdependence theory as a framework found support for our hypotheses: most situations described by parents were of asymmetric dependence, with power concentrated almost exclusively with the alienating parent, and/or were direct challenges made by the alienating parent to gain control over their children and the targeted parent. In addition, the proportion of situations in which asymmetries in power were described was highest when the alienating parent had primary or sole custody of the children. Discussion focuses on the need to better understand and consider the role of power in the assessment of parental alienation so that appropriate and effective interventions may be implemented to protect children and their family members.

Mental Health in Schoolchildren in Joint Physical Custody: A Longitudinal Study

This study investigated mental health in schoolchildren in different living arrangements after parental separation. The study population included 31,519 children from the Danish National Birth Cohort, followed-up at age 11 in 2010–2014. Child mental health was measured with a maternal report of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Associations between living arrangements and mental health were analyzed using logistic and linear regression models, taking into account early childhood indicators of the parents’ relations, income, education and psychiatric care. At age 11, children living in a nuclear family had the lowest rate of total SDQ score, 8.9%. Of the children who had experienced parental separation, children in joint physical custody had the lowest adjusted odds ratio (OR)1.25 (95%-CI 1.09–1.44), for a high SDQ score relative to children living in a nuclear family, with adjusted ORs of 1.63 (1.42–1.86) and OR 1.72 (1.52–1.95) for sole physical custody arrangements with and without a new partner. An analysis of change in SDQ scores between ages 7 and 11 in children showed a similar pattern. This study indicates that joint physical custody is associated with slightly more favorable mental health in schoolchildren after parental separation than sole physical custody arrangements.

Joint physical custody, parent–child relationships, and children’s psychosomatic problems

AimThe prevalence of psychosomatic complaints among children and adolescents appears to be increasing. At the same time, the numbers of joint physical custody families are rising across Western countries. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between post-separation care arrangements (joint physical custody vs. sole physical custody) and children’s risks of psychosomatic problems, while considering the potential mediating role of parent–child relationships.Subject and methodsBased on data from the Family Models in Germany (FAMOD) study, stepwise linear regression models and seemingly unrelated regression models were estimated for a sample of 473 children aged seven to 14 living in either sole physical custody or joint physical custody families.ResultsChildren in joint physical custody families reported significantly fewer psychosomatic problems than children in sole physical custody families. Furthermore, living in a joint physical custody arrangement was associated with better parent–child relationships, although only the mother–child relationship was significantly related to children’s psychosomatic complaints, and partially mediated the association between physical custody arrangements and children’s psychosomatic complaints. No corresponding association could be found with respect to the father–child relationship.ConclusionThe risk of psychosomatic problems was distributed unequally among post-separation families, as children living in joint physical custody arrangements suffered from fewer psychosomatic problems than children living in sole physical custody arrangements. Because part of this association was explained by the quality of the mother–child relationship, children’s relationships with other family members appear to be important factors to consider when seeking to promote children’s health in post-separation care arrangements.

The Stability Paradox: The Two-Parent Paradigm and the Perpetuation of Violence Against Women in Termination of Parental Rights and Custody Cases

Despite changing family compositions, entrenched in family law is the antiquated idea that a two-parent household, or its approximation vis-à-vis a shared custody arrangement, promotes stability and integrity and, thus, is in the best interest of the child. Yet, the concept that the two-parent household (or shared involvement of both parents in the child’s life if the parents separate) promotes stability for the family and is best for the child is a dangerous fallacy. When rape or intimate partner violence (IPV) is present, or the re-occurrence of violence remains a threat, the family unit is far from stable. This Article explores the legal system’s glorification of the nuclear family, its resistance to shifting away from the two-parent paradigm, and how this resistance creates a stability paradox and perpetuates violence against women and children. The harmful impact that the nuclear family paradigm has on families is further explored by an examination of the statutory constructs and judicial interpretations of termination of parental rights (TPR) and custody statutes in cases where a child is conceived as a result of rape or exposed to ongoing IPV. Cases are utilized to examine how courts have interpreted parental rights statutes where a child is conceived as a result of rape. Additionally, a hypothetical case is discussed to explore arguments that may be advanced in TPR cases where children are exposed to ongoing IPV. The Article finds that although there are inherent problems in enacting statutes to terminate parental rights in cases involving rape or IPV, legislation is also a necessary tool for survivors. Model legislation is proposed for termination of parental rights in cases where a child is conceived as a result of a sexual offense or when a child is exposed to ongoing IPV.

Changes in Legal Regulations, Parental Health and Well-Being, and Children’s Physical Custody Arrangements among Post-Separation Families in Switzerland

ABSTRACT This study examines the prevalence and socio-demographic profiles of post-separation parents practicing shared physical custody (SPC) in Switzerland, and its associations with parental health and well-being. We analyzed data from two samples of post-separation parents: one surveyed before and one shortly after family law changes facilitating parents’ access to SPC. In both samples, SPC parents represented only a small fraction and SPC was associated with parents’ higher education or less financial strain. SPC-health and -well-being linkages also varied by education. We conclude that prevailing gender-biased employment practices may counteract the broadened access to SPC by reinforcing more traditional sole custody models among less resourceful parents.

Externalizing behaviors and attachment disorganization in children of different-sex separated parents: The protective role of joint physical custody.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between externalizing behaviors and the quality of attachment representations in preschool children, and to determine if family type and custody arrangement had a moderating effect on this relationship. The participants were 33 girls and 31 boys (n=64) aged between three and six years (M=4.75; SD=0.87years) and their mothers. Among them, 36 came from "intact" families, 13 were living mainly with their mothers and 15 were in joint physical custody. Children's attachment representations were assessed with the Attachment Story Completion Task (Bretherton, Ridgeway & Cassidy, 1990). Mothers reported on their child's behavior problems using the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) and on their alliance with the father using the Parenting Alliance Inventory (Abidin & Brunner, 1995). Although children's externalizing behaviors were found to be associated with the disorganization of their attachment representations, this relationship was significantly weaker and was non-significant for children in joint physical custody. Thus, the results of this pilot study suggest that joint custody may protect children of separated parents from the effects of attachment disorganization on externalizing behaviors.

“Part‐Time Parent”: Mothering in the Context of Shared Physical Custody

ObjectiveThis qualitative study examined women's identities as mothers when sharing postdivorce physical custody of children.BackgroundThe increase in divorced parents sharing physical custody can create challenges, especially for women whose identity is manifested through the social position of mother. Although researchers have investigated children's outcomes in connection with shared physical custody, little is known regarding the effects of shared custody on women's identities as mothers.MethodA secondary analysis was conducted using interviews from a grounded theory study of 20 divorced women with shared physical custody arrangements.ResultsMothers resolved the cognitive dissonance they experienced upholding the competing values of being physically present for their child and supporting their child's relationship with their father by prioritizing the belief that their child should maintain relationships with both parents. The mothers found ways in which their part‐time parent role supported their mothering identity. They also experienced challenges and developed individual solutions to overcome the challenges.ConclusionThe ideology of intensive mothering may be changing, particularly for women who undergo divorce or separation. Mothers' beliefs that their children should maintain relationships with both parents overrides their desire to always be physically present for their children and decreases the time women enact their role as mothers.ImplicationsPractitioners are encouraged to guide mothers' adjustment to their custody arrangement and help them “redo” the ways they view their mother identity.

Family life transitions, residential relocations, and housing in the life course: Current research and opportunities for future work: Introduction to the Special Collection on “Separation, Divorce, and Residential Mobility in a Comparative Perspective”

BACKGROUND This article provides an introduction to the Special Collection on Separation, Divorce, and Residential Mobility in a Comparative Perspective. The Special Collection consists of six European case studies: Belgium, Finland, France, Italy, Hungary, and the United Kingdom, and a cross-national study comparing Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. All studies focus on residential relocations or housing outcomes following separation. RESULTS Divorce and separation have a long-lasting impact on individuals' residential relocations and housing conditions. This influence is gendered - women are generally worse off than men - and varies by individuals' educational level, whether they have children, and who cares for the children following union dissolution. CONCLUSIONS Although the study countries are different regarding their welfare systems and housing markets, papers in the Special Collection report striking similarities in the housing and residential consequences of union dissolution across countries. Separation leads to a prolonged residential and housing instability for many individuals. CONTRIBUTION The studies contribute to the literature by focusing on the role of repartnering, child custody arrangements, the parental home, location continuity, country context, and gender for postseparation residential patterns and trajectories. Furthermore, this Special Collection contains the first analyses of the residential and housing patterns of separated men and women in Eastern and Southern Europe.

The Minimum Wage and Fathers’ Residence with Children

The minimum wage is an important determinant of earnings among lower-skilled parents and may have implications for their children’s living arrangements. We used nationally representative data to examine associations between the minimum wage and fathers’ residence with their biological children. Results revealed no association between the minimum wage and father residence among all low-income families. However, this finding masks important heterogeneity within these families based on which parent’s earnings were sensitive to minimum wage levels. In families where only fathers’ earnings were sensitive to minimum wage levels, fathers were more likely to live with their children as minimum wages increased, consistent with research that shows the importance of economic stability for fathers’ residence and custody arrangements. In contrast, in families where only mothers’ earnings were sensitive to minimum wage levels, higher minimum wages were negatively associated with fathers’ residence, consistent with theories of maternal independence. These associations with residence were not observed in situations where both parents’ earnings were sensitive to the minimum wage. Results indicate that these economic policies may be consequential for family processes and well-being in key subsets of low-earning families.

Parenting a 6-Year Old Is Not What I Planned in Retirement: Trauma and Stress among Grandparents Due to the Opioid Crisis

ABSTRACT There is little research about trauma, financial stress, and social service needs emanating from the experience of parenting grandchildren caused by the opioid crisis in the United States. We conducted a qualitative study with 15 grandparents who currently or in the past had custodial care of their grandchildren. We also interviewed nine issue-related stakeholders in Eastern Massachusetts. Specific inquiries centered on events leading up to a change in guardianship, stressors related to legal, financial, and family issues, and system-wide response to the grandparents’ needs. Results indicate that the opioid crisis presents distinct challenges for the grandparent-led families and for the systems that serve the new family arrangement. Crisis triggers a change in guardianship and continues throughout the years. The continued crises stem from events related to the parent’s opioid use disorder (OUD) and from expenses related to raising a young family, especially when the grandchild has adverse childhood experiences. Our analysis shows that systems break down on a number of levels, and the fluidity of custodial arrangements due to parents’ OUD status does not map onto existing support or benefit systems. Policy responses must focus on the immediate and long-term needs of grandparent caretakers, especially since the opioid crisis is likely to continue.