Current Taxonomy Research Articles

Evolution of the Grey-bellied pygmy mouse group: Highly structured molecular diversity with predictable geographic ranges but morphological crypsis

The grey-bellied pygmy mouse (Mus triton) from the endemic African subgenus Nannomys is a widespread rodent species inhabiting the highlands of eastern and central Africa. Although it has long been considered as a single species, recent data has suggested the existence of a species complex. In order to evaluate the geographical structure and current taxonomy of M. triton, we analysed one mitochondrial and six nuclear genes from individuals covering most of its distribution range. Our analysis revealed the existence of at least five distinct genetic lineages with only marginal overlaps among their distributional ranges. Morphological comparisons, however, showed large overlaps in external body measurements and only a weak differentiation in skull form. Therefore, we suggest maintaining M. triton as a single taxon with pronounced intraspecific genetic structure. Divergence dating analysis placed the most recent common ancestor of the extant lineages of M. triton to the early Pleistocene (about 2.0 Ma). The phylogeographic structure of the species was likely shaped by Pleistocene climatic oscillations and the highly diverse topography of eastern Africa.

Resolving the position of Astragalus borysthenicus Klokov within the Astragalus L. species

The present study is focused on several species from the genus Astragalus L. with the aim to clarify the taxonomic status of Ukrainian local endemic species Astragalus borysthenicus Klokov, which is sometimes considered a synonym to A. onobrychis L. In this study, the morphological features, current taxonomy, taxonomical history, and phylogenetic analysis based on rDNA Bayesian inference, as well as comparative analysis of ITS1 and ITS2 secondary structures, were investigated. It was found that A. borysthenicus is distant from A. onobrychis according to phylogenetic analysis. Moreover, A. borysthenicus has differences from the investigated taxa in its secondary structures of ITS1 and ITS2 transcripts. These data suggest that A. borysthenicus should be treated as a separate species rather than a synonym to A. onobrychis.

Dietary Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Conceptual Analysis and Taxonomy.

Background: Dietary behavior encompasses many aspects, terms for which are used inconsistently across different disciplines and research traditions. This hampers communication and comparison across disciplines and impedes the development of a cumulative science. We describe the conceptual analysis of the fuzzy umbrella concept “dietary behavior” and present the development of an interdisciplinary taxonomy of dietary behavior.Methods: A four-phase multi-method approach was employed. Input was provided by 76 scholars involved in an international research project focusing on the determinants of dietary behavior. Input was collected from the scholars via an online mind mapping procedure. After structuring, condensing, and categorizing this input into a compact taxonomy, the result was presented to all scholars, discussed extensively, and adapted. A second revision round was then conducted among a core working group.Results: A total of 145 distinct entries were made in the original mind mapping procedure. The subsequent steps allowed us to reduce and condense the taxonomy into a final product consisting of 34 terms organized into three main categories: Food Choice, Eating Behavior, and Dietary Intake/Nutrition. In a live discussion session attended by 50 of the scholars involved in the development of the taxonomy, it was judged to adequately reflect their input and to be a valid and useful starting point for interdisciplinary understanding and collaboration.Conclusion: The current taxonomy can be used as a tool to facilitate understanding and cooperation between different disciplines investigating dietary behavior, which may contribute to a more successful approach to tackling the complex public health challenges faced by the field. The taxonomy need not be viewed as a final product, but can continue to grow in depth and width as additional experts provide their input.

Phylogeny of the spider mite sub-family Tetranychinae (Acari: Tetranychidae) inferred from RNA-Seq data.

Phylogenetic trees of spider mites were previously obtained using 18S and 28S rRNA genes. Because some of the bootstrap values were relatively low, these trees were unable to completely resolve the phylogeny. Here, we obtained RNA-Seq data for the 72 known species (73 strains) of spider mites to analyze the phylogeny of the sub-family Tetranychinae. The data were de novo assembled into a total alignment length of 790,047 bases corresponding to 264,133 amino acid residues in 652 genes. The sequence dataset was 200 times larger than the data used in the previous study. The new trees were much more robust and more clearly defined the clades of the tribes and the genera of the sub-family Tetranychinae. The tribe Tetranychini was polyphyletic because a monophyletic clade of Eurytetranychini was placed inside it. The six genera from which two or more species were sampled appeared to be monophyletic, but four genera (Schizotetranychus, Eotetranychus, Oligonychus and Tetranychus) appeared to be polyphyletic. These results strongly support the previous molecular inference of the polyphyletic tribes and genera, although the molecular phylogeny of the sub-family Tetranychinae does not fully agree with the current morphology-based taxonomy. The taxonomy of the sub-family Tetranychinae should be revised according to the molecular relationships revealed by this study.

Investigating the genetic diversity and differentiation patterns in the Penstemon scariosus species complex under different sample sizes using AFLPs and SSRs

Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities is the major cause of biodiversity loss. Endemic and narrowly distributed species are the most susceptible to habitat degradation. Penstemon scariosus is one of many species whose natural habitat is vulnerable to industrialization. All varieties of P. scariosus (P. scariosus var. albifluvis, P. scariosus var. cyanomontanus, P. scariosus var. garrettii, P. scariosus var. scariosus) have small distribution ranges, but only P. scariosus var. albifluvis is being considered for listing under the Endangered Species Act. We used eight microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) loci and two amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) primer combinations to investigate the population genetic structure and diversity of P. scariosus varieties. Moreover, we compared the utility of the two marker systems in conservation genetics and estimated an appropriate sample size in population genetic studies. Genetic differentiation among populations based on Fst ranged from low to moderate (Fst = 0.056–0.157) and from moderate to high when estimated with Des (Des = 0.15–0.32). Also, AMOVA analysis shows that most of the genetic variation is within populations. Inbreeding coefficients (Fis) were high in all varieties (0.20–0.56). The Bayesian analysis, STRUCTURE, identified three clusters from SSR data and four clusters from AFLPs. Clusters were not consistent between marker systems and did not represent the current taxonomy. MEMGENE revealed that a high proportion of the genetic variation is due to geographic distance (R2 = 0.38, P = 0.001). Comparing the genetic measurements from AFLPs and SSRs, we found that AFLP results were more accurate than SSR results across sample size when populations were larger than 25 individuals. As sample size decreases, the estimates become less stable in both AFLP and SSR datasets. Finally, this study provides insight into the population genetic structure of these varieties, which could be used in conservation efforts.

New insights on the phylogenetic position and population genetic structure of the Critically Endangered Karpathos marsh frog Pelophylax cerigensis (Amphibia: Anura: Ranidae)

The genus Pelophylax , which currently comprises 26 species, is a well studied group due to its complex history and high diversification, although some phylogenies remain unresolved. Here we assess the phylogenetic position and the population genetic structure of the Critically Endangered Karpathos frog, Pelophylax cerigensis , endemic to Karpathos Island. A total of 42 cytb sequences were examined including specimens from Rhodes Island, and amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) were generated to investigate the genetic structure and connectivity of the only two known populations on Karpathos. Molecular analyses reveal two major waterfrog lineages in the eastern Mediterranean: Clade A comprises Pelophylax bedriagae from the Middle East and the island of Cyprus, while clade B includes both P. bedriagae from the east Aegean Sea and P. cerigensis . Specimens from Karpathos and Rhodes constitute a single clade, contrasting previous studies, thus indicating the occurrence of Karpathos frog also to the neighboring Rhodes. The AFLP markers revealed low but statistically significant levels of genetic divergence between the two Karpathos’ populations and similar levels of genetic diversity. Our results suggest that the current taxonomy of the species should be re-evaluated. We also strongly recommend the need of conservation actions to maintain the levels of diversity in the declining population of the Karpathos frog.

Bringing an Historic Collection into the Modern Era: Curating the J. K. Underwood Seed Collection at the University of Tennessee Herbarium (TENN)

Abstract The University of Tennessee Herbarium (TENN) presents a case study for modernizing an historic seed collection. TENN staff recently rediscovered the J. K. Underwood Seed Collection (ca. 1931–1964), containing over 700 unique specimens, hidden away in storage. We employed a series of curation actions to modernize the collection and render it useful to researchers. This included physically organizing and digitally indexing the collection, updating scientific names to current taxonomy, storing the specimens in modern archival-quality containers, housing the collection in environmentally-controlled conditions, and increasing accessibility of the collection by photographing specimens and integrating these images into our existing website (tenn.bio.utk.edu). Our efforts also included developing a protocol for adding new accessions to the collection and advertising the utility of the collection as a source of morphological data on seeds for identification, research, and teaching. We also review modern strategies for curating seed collections. Specifically, we emphasize the importance of increasing visibility of collections through visual, digital representations. This expands the utility of collections and fosters global information sharing across disciplines. We present our curation project as a case study that can serve as a model for curating historic seed collections.

Current taxonomy of Rhodococcus species and their role in infections.

Rhodococcus is a genus of obligate aerobic, Gram-positive, partially acid-fast, catalase-positive, non-motile, and none-endospore bacteria. The genus Rhodococcus was first introduced by Zopf. This bacterium can be isolated from various sources of the environment and can grow well in non-selective medium. A large number of phenotypic characterizations are used to compare different species of the genus Rhodococcus, and these tests are not suitable for accurate identification at the genus and species level. Among nucleic acid-based methods, the most powerful target gene for revealing reliable phylogenetic relationships is 16S ribosomal RNA gene (16S rRNA gene) sequence analysis, but this gene is unable to differentiation some of Rhodococcus species. To date, whole genome sequencing analysis has solved taxonomic complexities in this genus. Rhodococcus equi is the major cause of foal pneumonia, and its implication in human health is related to cases in immunocompromised patients. Macrolide family together with rifampicin is one of the most effective antibiotic agents for treatment rhodococcal infections.

Differentiation underground: Range-wide multilocus genetic structure of the silvery mole-rat does not support current taxonomy based on mitochondrial sequences

The silvery mole-rat (Heliophobius argenteocinereus) is a solitary subterranean rodent with its distribution centred mainly in miombo woodlands of eastern Africa. This part of the continent was significantly influenced by the formation of the East African Rift System (EARS) during the last 25 Mya and by pronounced climatic changes in the Plio-Pleistocene that have caused genetic differentiation leading even to speciation events in many organisms. Recently, based on analysis of mitochondrial (mt) DNA sequences, it was suggested that H. argenteocinereus is a complex of six to eight species that diverged from the early to middle Miocene. In the present study, we significantly extended the sampling, re-analysed mtDNA datasets and analysed nuclear markers with the aim to assess the evolutionary history of Heliophobius. If we do not consider the old museum samples from south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (very divergent short mtDNA sequences obtained from ancient DNA, requiring further study from fresh material), the genus Heliophobius is composed of three major mtDNA lineages with parapatric distribution. The Rukwa Rift (+Mbeya triple junction) at the Zambia-Tanzania border, Lake Malawi, and the Eastern Arc Mountains form the biogeographical divides among these clades. The relatively shallow differences among the mitochondrial clades, divergence dating based on the use of the fossilised birth-death ratio model and a multi-locus dataset, and a very similar pattern of genetic structure to other rodents inhabiting the same area and habitat, suggest that the evolutionary history of the extant silvery mole-rat was predominantly influenced by the climatic fluctuations in the Plio-Pleistocene. Awaiting further studies employing genomic, ecological, morphological or behavioural data, we advocate for using the single name H. argenteocinereus for all evolutionary lineages within this taxon, because (1) comparison of the genetic structure observed in mtDNA and nuclear markers suggest hybridization between at least some mtDNA lineages in the contact zones; and (2) new samples close to the type localities suggest incorrect use of previous names.

Molecular systematics and character evolution in the lichen family Ramalinaceae (Ascomycota: Lecanorales)

AbstractThe Ramalinaceae is the fourth‐largest family of lichenized ascomycetes with 42 genera and 913 species exhibiting considerable morphological variation. Historically, generic boundaries in the Ramalinaceae were primarily based on morphological characters. However, molecular systematic investigations of subgroups revealed that current taxonomy is at odds with evolutionary relationships. Tropical members of the family remain particularly understudied, including the large genusPhyllopsora. We have generated and collected multilocus sequence data (mtSSU, nrITS, nrLSU,RPB1, RPB2) for 149 species associated with the Ramalinaceae and present the first comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the family. We used ancestral state reconstructions on our molecular family phylogeny to trace the evolution of character states. Our results indicate that the Ramalinaceae have arisen from an ancestor with long, multiseptate ascospores living in humid temperate forests, and that the phyllopsoroid growth form has evolved multiple times within the family. Based on our results using integrative taxonomy, we discuss sister‐relations and taxon‐delimitation within five well‐supported clades: TheBacidia, Biatora‐, Ramalina‐, Rolfidium‐, andToninia‐groups. We reduce six genera into synonymy and make 49 new nomenclatural combinations. The generaBacidia, Phyllopsora, PhyscidiaandToniniaare polyphyletic and herein split into segregates. We describe the two generaBellicidiaandParallopsoraand resurrect the generaBibbya, Kiliassia, Sporacestra, andThalloidima. According to our new circumscription, which also includes some additional changes, the family Ramalinaceae now comprises 39 genera.

Iterative taxonomy based on morphological and molecular evidence to estimate species boundaries: a case study in Cypella (Iridaceae: Iridoideae)

Cypella Herb. is one of the largest genera of Tigridieae (Iridaceae: Iridoideae) with more than 30 species accepted by the World Checklist of Iridaceae. The current infrageneric taxonomy rests exclusively on morphological characters, which are more or less reliable because of their intraspecific variability, and the delimitation of various species recently described remains obscure. Therefore, multiple lines of evidence were used to assess species boundaries in a morphologically conserved group of five species, including various populations of Cypella pusilla and the closely related C. gloriana. Phylogenetic analyses based on ten genetic markers (eight plastid and two nuclear loci) and multivariate analyses of 38 qualitative and quantitative phenotypic characters were performed. Results revealed that species-level diversity was overestimated and intraspecific morphological variability of C. pusilla underestimated. Overall, our findings support the utility of combining genetic evidence and broad morphological sampling to validate and describe species using complementary approaches. Consequently, an updated taxonomic treatment of C. pusilla is presented, including an expanded description of the species.

Recent Advances on Detection and Characterization of Fruit Tree Viruses Using High-Throughput Sequencing Technologies.

Perennial crops, such as fruit trees, are infected by many viruses, which are transmitted through vegetative propagation and grafting of infected plant material. Some of these pathogens cause severe crop losses and often reduce the productive life of the orchards. Detection and characterization of these agents in fruit trees is challenging, however, during the last years, the wide application of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies has significantly facilitated this task. In this review, we present recent advances in the discovery, detection, and characterization of fruit tree viruses and virus-like agents accomplished by HTS approaches. A high number of new viruses have been described in the last 5 years, some of them exhibiting novel genomic features that have led to the proposal of the creation of new genera, and the revision of the current virus taxonomy status. Interestingly, several of the newly identified viruses belong to virus genera previously unknown to infect fruit tree species (e.g., Fabavirus, Luteovirus) a fact that challenges our perspective of plant viruses in general. Finally, applied methodologies, including the use of different molecules as templates, as well as advantages and disadvantages and future directions of HTS in fruit tree virology are discussed.

Onychomycosis Due to Aspergillus spp.: a Current Review

The incidence of onychomycosis by Aspergillus has shown an increase in recent years, representing 34–60% of onychomycosis due to non-dermatophyte molds. At least 26 species of Aspergillus causing onychomycosis have been reported, some of which may be morphologically indistinguishable but genetically distinct, even in their susceptibility profile to antifungals. So in the diagnosis of this pathology, it is necessary to use both conventional and molecular methods to get to the identification of the fungus at the species level and thus establish the appropriate treatment. The current taxonomy of the genus Aspergillus includes sections that are made up of species whose morphology is almost identical but have different patterns of susceptibility to antifungals. Advances in the taxonomy of these fungi reveal the need to combine phenotypic methods (analysis of microscopic and macroscopic characteristics) with molecular ones (amplification and sequencing of fragments of the β-tubulin and calmodulin genes) to achieve their correct identification at the level of species. From the demonstration of Aspergillus as the primary agent of onychomycosis, an increase in the incidence of this pathology worldwide has been reported, whose treatment is usually complicated. Various species of Aspergillus can cause nail infection but may respond differently to antifungal treatment, so it is important to know their epidemiology, clinical characteristics, etiologic agents, diagnostic methods, and treatment.

65 YEARS OF THE DOUBLE HELIX: Classification of endocrine tumors in the age of integrated genomics.

The classification of human cancers represents one of the cornerstones of modern pathology. Over the last century, surgical pathologists established the current taxonomy of neoplasia using traditional histopathological parameters, which include tumor architecture, cytological features and cellular proliferation. This morphological classification is efficient and robust with high reproducibility and has served patients and health care providers well. The most recent decade has witnessed an explosion of genome-wide molecular genetic and epigenetic data for most cancers, including tumors of endocrine organs. The availability of this expansive multi-dimensional genomic data, collectively termed the cancer genome, has catalyzed a re-examination of the classification of endocrine tumors. Here, recent cancer genome studies of various endocrine tumors, including those of the thyroid, pituitary and adrenal glands, pancreas, small bowel, lung and skin, are presented with special emphasis on how genomic insights are impacting endocrine tumor classification.

Who’s who in the Bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 species: Genotypes L and R

The bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 species is responsible for cosmopolitan diseases affecting cattle and other ruminants, with relevant impact on animal production. The species presents high genomic heterogeneity, with implications on control and prophylactic programs. Genomic traits of different genetic groups are often related to geographic origin. Atypical sequences have been reported from Pestivirus isolates originated from cattle in Turkey. Based on phylogenetic analysis of 5′ untranslated region and Npro and secondary structure analysis of the 5′-UTR RNA, Turkish isolates have been segregated in two distinct genotypes. Out of the twenty-three identified BVDV-1 genotypes, the Turkish clusters, named L and R or 1.16 and 1.14, according to palindromic nucleotide substitution genotyping method, represent genomic clusters so far, not described elsewhere, suggesting geographic segregation. In order to avoid confusion in the current taxonomy of the species, nomenclature of described homonymous genotypes, referred to different genomic clusters, should be corrected.

Inferring the potential of plastid DNA-based identification of derived ferns: a case study on the Asplenium trichomanes aggregate in Europe

The utility of three plastid DNA regions to identify fern species was explored with focus on the European representatives of the Asplenium trichomanes aggregate. The sampling included representatives of the three diploid and the four tetraploid taxa recognized in the European flora plus Macaronesia. Besides European samples, the compiled data set comprised specimens of a putative Hawaiian endemic and one species occurring in Southeast Asia. By combining the sequences of three non-coding plastid regions, 13 haplotypes were recovered of which four were found in more than one taxon. Evidences for four distinct diploid lineages were found that correspond to Asplenium anceps, A. inexpectans, A. trichomanes s.s., and A. tripteropus. The four tetraploids occurring in Europe shared haplotypes with A. inexpectans. Thus, DNA barcoding can successfully identify the diploids, but fail to separate the tetraploids from their diploid ancestors. As a consequence, barcoding analyses of ferns need to take into account the differences of ploidy level measured by evidence independent from the DNA barcode. Evidence for uneven accumulation of intra-species DNA variation was recovered by comparing all species. Furthermore, the study provided evidence that the current taxonomy of these ferns requires to be revised. The two European diploids form well-separated clades and need to be recognized as A. inexpectans and A. trichomanes s.s. To keep name consistency for all European tetraploids, a new name Asplenium jessenii is introduced to replace A. trichomanes subsp. hastatum.

Taxonomy of the Golovinomyces cynoglossi Complex (Erysiphales, Ascomycota) Disentangled by Phylogenetic Analyses and Reassessments of Morphological Traits

The name Golovinomyces cynoglossi s. lat. is traditionally applied to a complex of morphologically similar powdery mildews on hosts of the plant family Boraginaceae. The current species-level taxonomy within this complex is ambiguous due to the lack of phylogenetic examinations. The present study applied phylogenetic methods to clarify the taxonomy of G. cynoglossi s. lat. Phylogenetic analysis of rDNA ITS sequences retrieved from Asian, European and North American specimens revealed that G. cynoglossi s. lat. collections from different hosts involved several species in five clearly separated lineages. Clade I consists primarily of Golovinomyces cynoglossi s. str. on Cynoglossum. Clade III consists of Golovinomyces sequences retrieved from the host genera Symphytum and Pulmonaria. The taxa within clade III are now assigned to G. asperifoliorum comb. nov. Clade V encompasses G. cynoglossi s. lat. on the host genera Bothriospermum, Buglossoides, Echium, Myosotis, and Trigonotis. The taxa within clade V are now assigned to G. asperifolii comb. nov. The species concerned in this study were lecto- and epitypified to stabilize their nomenclature.

Classification Success of Species within theGila robustaComplex Using Morphometric and Meristic Characters—A Reexamination

Three cyprinids often referred to as the Gila robusta complex, G. robusta, G. nigra, and G. intermedia, are morphologically similar and genetically indistinguishable at the currently recognized species level. Current taxonomy is based on purported morphometric and meristic differences that are detailed in a classification key; however, the ability of the key to reliably distinguish the species has recently come into question. Chubs were collected from locations in Arizona, and two analysis methods were used to predict species' identification success using the key: 1) correct assignment to species using cluster analysis and multinomial logistic regression; and 2) observer identification success by species. Cluster analysis and multinomial logistic regression correctly assigned only 62% and 74% of fish, respectively, to the assumed species designation. Identification success using both analysis methods was most successful for G. robusta (82% cluster; 82% regression), followed by G. intermedia (53% cluster; ...

Molecular phylogeny of the Palaearctic butterfly genus Pseudophilotes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) with focus on the Sardinian endemic P. barbagiae

BackgroundThe Palaearctic butterfly genus Pseudophilotes Beuret, 1958 (Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae), that today occurs in North Africa and in Eurasia, includes ten described species with various distribution ranges, including endemics such as the Sardinian P. barbagiae. Phylogenetic relationships among these species are largely unresolved. In the present study, we analysed 158 specimens, representing seven species out of ten described in the genus, from widely distributed sites throughout the western Palaearctic region, using nuclear markers (28S rRNA, wingless, Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 and Elongation Factor 1α) and the barcoding region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene to investigate if the current taxonomic entities match the phylogenetic pattern. Further, we attempt to infer the geographic origin of the genus Pseudophilotes and estimate the timing of its radiations, including the split of the Sardinian endemic P. barbagiae.ResultsMaximum Likelihood and Bayesian inference analyses confirmed the monophyly of the genus Pseudophilotes and clearly supported the closer affinity of P. barbagiae to the species assemblage of P. baton, P. vicrama and P. panoptes as opposed to P. abencerragus. The currently accepted species P. baton, P. vicrama and P. panoptes turned out to be weakly differentiated from each other, while P. bavius and P. fatma emerged as highly distinct and formed a well supported clade. The split between the lineage comprising bavius and fatma (sometimes treated as a distinct genus, Rubrapterus) with Salvia species as larval host plants, and the remaining Pseudophilotes that utilize Thymus and other Lamiaceae (but not Salvia), dates back to about 4.9 million years ago (Mya).ConclusionsOur results show that the last common ancestor of the genus probably lived in the Messinian period (5.33–7.25 Mya). At species level, they support the current taxonomy of the genus, although P. panoptes, P. baton and P. vicrama display complex patterns based on phylogeographic relationships inferred from mtDNA. The Sardinian endemic P. barbagiae turned out to be a young endemic, but clearly with European instead of North African origin and evolved through allopatric isolation on the island of Sardinia only about 0.74 Mya.

Phytochemistry and bioactivity of Acacia sensu stricto (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae)

Acacia sensu lato (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae) was recently retypified and divided into five genera worldwide: Acacia, Acaciella, Mariosousa, Senegalia and Vachellia. Acacia sensu stricto is now considered to be a large genus of predominantly Australian origin comprising seven sections: Acacia, Alatae, Botrycephalae, Juliflorae, Lycopodiifoliae, Plurinerves and Pulchellae. This review presents an overview of the current taxonomy of A. sensu stricto and the natural products isolated and identified from it. Further, the traditional uses of different species and known bioactivities of isolated natural products are summarised. The flavonoids and tannins are the best studied classes of natural products from Acacia with characteristic hydroxylation patterns of flavonoids isolated from the heartwood of species positioned in different sections of the genus. These compounds display a range of activities including antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory and antimicrobial effects. Peltogynoid compounds, differing from other flavonoids by the presence of a fourth ring, have been isolated from a small group of species, however, their biological activities remain to be defined. Only a limited number of terpenes and steroids have been identified, but complex triterpenoid saponins with various bioactivities are present across various sections. Despite their economic importance and the traditional use, only a limited number of species have been thoroughly studied for their chemical composition. Further investigation of the sections Alatae and Lycopodiifoliae would be of interest for bioactive compound research as these sections are largely unexplored.