Current Level Of Protection Research Articles

Banning biometric mind reading: the case for criminalising mind probing

ABSTRACT Several emerging technologies afford a specific type of interference with privacy which has not yet been conceptualised: inferring information about mental properties of persons on the basis of physiological or biometric signals, in short: mind probing. This paper conceptualises it, analyses several forms and proposes concrete norms that ban and criminalise it. Facial emotion recognition, neuroimaging, or wearable consumer devices such as smartwatches process biometric data to draw inferences about minds; the prevalence and sophistication of such mind probes will soon increase through AI data analysis. This paper explores how human rights law, the EU General Data Protection Regulation and the EU AI Act address mind probes and shows why the current level of protection appears insufficient. This motivates novel norms banning and criminalising non-consensual biometric-based forms of mind reading, ensuring that at least some parts of the mind remain in principle free from non-consensual mind probing.

A Child's Right to Identity in the Context of Embryo Donation: Lessons from Australia and New Zealand, Part 2

In part 1 of this article, the current level of protection for the right to identity both at the national and international levels were considered in the case of embryo donation. It was concluded that at a national level the NHA, its accompanying regulations and the Children’s Act fail to protect this right. The constitutional provisions on children’s rights are further unhelpful in providing the requisite level of protection. At an international level it was further found that neither the CRC or the ACRWC explicitly uphold the child’s right to identity in the case of embryo donation. In an attempt to address this defect, this article draws comparisons on the legal protection provided for the right to identity of children born through embryo donation in Australia and New Zealand. A number of lessons can be drawn from this comparative analysis. At a national level, the article submits that the birth certificate should indicate the child’s true origins and in addition to a register which holds the particulars of the child’s donor parents, a separate donor sibling register is also suggested. Legislative amendments are also suggested to Parliament. At an international level, the following recommendations are made: a new UN Convention which is centred around Assisted Reproductive Technology, a General Comment drafted by the Convention on the Rights of the Child to cover specific issues and interests of children, ratification of a Convention by the Hague Conference, and an investigation into the concerns raised by international embryo donation to be carried out by the International Social Service Network. Further, the article concludes that an African based instrument would not be as effective as a UN proposed solution given the cultural and religious concerns in traditional African societies.

Harnessing the runoff reduction potential of urban bioswales as an adaptation response to climate change

Nature-based solutions (NbS), including China's Sponge City Program (SCP), can address the challenges urban communities face due to surface runoff and flooding. The current capacity of SCP facilities in urban environments falls short of meeting the demands placed on communities by climate change. Bioswales are a form of SCP facility that plays an important role in reducing surface runoff by promoting infiltration. This study assesses the potential of SCP facilities to reduce runoff in urban communities under climate change using the storm water management model. The study site in Ningbo, China, was used to evaluate the potential role of bioswales in reducing runoff risks from climate change. We found that bioswales were most effective in scenarios when rainfall peaks occurred early and were less effective in right-skewed rainfall events. The overall performance of SCP facilities was similar across all climate scenarios. To maintain the current protection level of SCP facilities, bioswales would need to cover at least 4% of the catchment area. These findings from Ningbo provide a useful method for assessing NbS in other regions and indicative values for the increase in the bioswale coverage needed to adapt to climate change.

The influence of individualistic worldviews on severe weather preparation.

How do people think they should prepare for tornadoes? To answer this question, we surveyed 340 people in six states in tornado alley and presented eight severe weather preparation choice sets that varied short and long-term benefits and costs with benefits or to the individual or to the community. Fifty-six percent of respondents preferred tornado preparations for the long-term that benefit individuals rather than the community. Correlations between personal characteristics, future expectations, and an individual's preferred preparation strategy show that being married, expecting stronger tornados, and having an individualistic worldview significantly increased the choice of individual preparation options. Past tornado experience and one's current protection level were not significantly related to individual-minded preparation choices. Out of 18 independent variables analyzed, individual worldview was the best predictor of a person's preferences. Individual worldview by itself had better predictive power than a regression model that included an individual's socioeconomic status, past severe weather experience, expectations about future tornados, and current protective measures for severe weather by itself. These findings can inform elected officials considering public policies for natural disaster preparedness and deciding between tradeoffs for keeping government costs low or providing benefits for everyone in the community. Our results are useful for planners and emergency managers who develop strategies to encourage tornado preparation by citizens in the community. For example, emergency managers can replicate the study with options specific to their community to determine what government communications or actions could prompt individuals to put protective measures in place.

Spotting what's important: Priority areas, connectivity, and conservation of the Northern Tiger Cat (Leopardus tigrinus) in Colombia.

Leopardus tigrinus is among the least known carnivore species in the Neotropics, including considerable taxonomic uncertainty. Here we model the distribution, connectivity and overlap with existing conservation areas for the species in Colombia. Using a Species Distribution Modeling approach, we estimated current potential range of the species in Colombia and identified potential habitat blocks remaining in the country. In addition, we designed a connectivity network across the available cores, using a circuit theory approach, to evaluate habitat linkage. Finally, we defined a prioritization scheme for the remaining habitat cores and assessed the level of coverage of protected areas for the country. L. tigrinus is potentially present across the three Andean branches of Colombia, with still considerable continuous habitat cores, mostly located on the eastern and central Andean ranges. Most habitat cores are theoretically connected, but nearly 15% are isolated. Priority areas were located across the eastern and central ranges, but with very significant and promising cores in the northern eastern and western ranges. Current level of protection indicates nearly 30% of the range is "protected", but only about 25% is under national strict protected areas. Evolution of this coverage showed some periods of significant increase but interestingly the number of cores grew at a faster rate than overall proportion protected, likely indicating numerous discontinuous fragments, and not contiguous functional landscapes. This represents the most updated assessment of the distribution and conservation status for the species in Colombia, and indicates the numerous conservation opportunities, especially in most populated areas of the country. We found unique business environmental passive's opportunities, including compensation and development potential, which are becoming more available in the country.

E-Services Cybersecurity Assessment Model

With the increasing importance of e-services in cyberspace, cybersecurity is essential for safety and trustworthiness. This paper presents a cybersecurity assessment model that can be used to determine the current level of protection of e-services and to support its future development. The model is distinguished by its comprehensiveness, flexibility, and usability. In terms of comprehensiveness, the model integrates various cybersecurity measures recommended by international and national organizations and by academic researchers. In terms of flexibility, it structures these measures into the four-domain framework of technology, organization, people, and environment. The model also structures the assessment into levels based on the dimensions of importance, strategy consideration, and practical implementation. The usability of the model is illustrated by its application to three different Saudi organizations concerned with e-services. This work will be useful to researchers for the future development of cybersecurity assessments, and to professionals for practical applications.

Targeting current species ranges and carbon stocks fails to conserve biodiversity in a changing climate: opportunities to support climate adaptation under 30 × 30

Protecting areas for climate adaptation will be essential to ensuring greater opportunity for species conservation well into the future. However, many proposals for protected areas expansion focus on our understanding of current spatial patterns, which may be ineffective surrogates for future needs. A science-driven call to address the biodiversity and climate crises by conserving at least 30% of lands and waters by 2030, 30 × 30, presents new opportunities to inform the siting of new protections globally and in the US. Here we identify climate refugia and corridors based on a weighted combination of currently available models; compare them to current biodiversity hotspots and carbon-rich areas to understand how 30 × 30 protections siting may be biased by data omission; and compare identified refugia and corridors to the protected areas database to assess current levels of protection. Available data indicate that 20.5% and 27.5% of identified climate adaptation areas (refugia and/or corridor) coincides with current imperiled species hotspots and carbon-rich areas, respectively. With only 12.5% of climate refugia and corridors protected, a continued focus on current spatial patterns in species and carbon richness will not inherently conserve places critical for climate adaptation. However, there is ample opportunity for establishing future-minded protections: 52% of the contiguous US falls into the top quartile of values for at least one class of climate refugia. Nearly 27% is already part of the protected areas network but managed for multiple uses that may limit their ability to contribute to the goals of 30 × 30. Additionally, nearly two-thirds of nationally identified refugia coincide with ecoregion-specific refugia suggesting representation of nearly all ecoregions in national efforts focused on conserving climate refugia. Based on these results, we recommend that land planners and managers make more explicit policy priorities and strategic decisions for future-minded protections and climate adaptation.

Impact of receiver inter-frequency bias residual uncertainty on dual-frequency GBAS integrity

Dual-Frequency Ground-Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS) can be affected by receiver Inter-Frequency Bias (IFB) when Ionosphere-Free (Ifree) smoothing is applied. In the framework of the proposed GBAS Approach Service Type F (GAST-F), the IFB in the Ifree smoothed pseudorange can be corrected. However, IFB residual uncertainty still exists, which may threaten the integrity of the system. This paper presents an improved algorithm for the airborne protection level considering the residual uncertainty of IFBs to protect the integrity of dual-frequency GBAS. The IFB residual uncertainty multiplied by a frequency factor is included in the Ifree protection level together with the uncertainty of other error sources. To verify the proposed protection level algorithm, we calculate the IFB residual uncertainties of ground reference receivers and user receiver based on BDS B1I and B3I dual-frequency observation data and carry out a test at the Dongying Airport GBAS station. The results show that the proposed Ifree protection level with IFB residual uncertainty is 1.48 times the current protection level on average. The probability of Misleading Information (MI) during the test is reduced from 3.2 × 10−4 to the required value. It is proven that the proposed protection level can significantly reduce the integrity risk brought by IFB residual uncertainty and protect the integrity of dual-frequency GBAS.

Assessing the extent of land-use change around important bat-inhabited caves

BackgroundModification and destruction of natural habitats are bringing previously unencountered animal populations into contact with humans, with bats considered important zoonotic transmission vectors. Caves and cave-dwelling bats are under-represented in conservation plans. In South Africa, at least two cavernicolous species are of interest as potential zoonotic hosts: the Natal long-fingered bat Miniopterus natalensis and the Egyptian fruit bat Rousettus aegyptiacus. Little information is available about the anthropogenic pressures these species face around important roost sites. Both bats are numerous and widespread throughout the country; land-use changes and urban expansions are a rising concern for both conservation and increased bat-human contact.ResultsOur study addressed this shortfall by determining the extent of land-cover change around 47 roosts between 2014 and 2018 using existing land cover datasets. We determined the land-cover composition around important roost sites (including maternity, hibernacula and co-roosts), distances to urban settlements and assessed the current protection levels of roost localities. We detected an overall 4% decrease in natural woody vegetation (trees) within 5 km buffer zones of all roost sites, with a 10% decrease detected at co-roost sites alone. Agricultural land cover increased the most near roost sites, followed by plantations and urban land-cover. Overall, roosts were located 4.15 ± 0.91 km from urban settlements in 2018, the distances decreasing as urban areas expand. According to the South African National Biodiversity Institute Ecosystem Threat Status assessment, 72% of roosts fall outside of well-protected ecosystems.ConclusionsThe current lack of regulatory protection of cavernicolous bats and their roosts, increasing anthropogenic expansions and proximity to human settlements raises concerns about increased human-bat contact. Furthermore, uncontrolled roost visitation and vandalism are increasing, contributing to bat health risks and population declines, though the extent of roosts affected is yet to be quantified. In an era where pandemics are predicted to become more frequent and severe due to land-use change, our research is an urgent call for the formal protection of bat-inhabited caves to safeguard both bats and humans.

Rights and the post-Brexit agenda: rights protection and institutional inadequacy in the United Kingdom

The issue of protection of rights in a post-Brexit UK has been largely absent from either the final rounds of EU/UK negotiations or the internal UK debate, other than in regard to Northern Ireland and citizen rights. The UK will leave the EU with little certainty as to how various rights, now ‘brought home’, will be protected and enforced. The protection of rights in the UK has been dependent on a multi-layered framework including EU institutions. The UK’s withdrawal from the EU will produce gaps in this overall institutional framework. Rights protection is likely to be further diluted through Brexit’s unsettling of the UK’s constitutional arrangements within its current rights-averse political environment. This article adopts an institutional approach to assess the implications of Brexit for the UK’s protection of rights. It argues that even with some regulatory alignment between the EU and the UK, inadequate institutional arrangements risk undermining current levels of protection.

Population-based seropositivity for IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in Ahmedabad city.

Context:Ahmedabad city with approximately 7 million population was one of the earliest cities to witness the high case load of COVID-19 pandemic in India. A population-based sero-survey was ideally suited in Ahmedabad to guide the public health response for managing COVID-19 pandemic.Objectives:To study the percentage sero-positivity for SARS-CoV-2 to understand the pandemic status and deriving conclusions for guiding the public health measures for managing the COVID-19 pandemic.Settings and Design:Population-based cross-sectional sero-surveillance.Methods and Material:Large scale sero-surveillance with population-based stratified sampling covering more than 10,000 samples from general population of Ahmedabad was carried out during second half of August 2020. The seropositivity was correlated and compared with various demographic factors and other parameters for valid and precise predictions on the immunity status of the population.Results:With 2,396 samples positive for IgG antibodies from a total of 10,310 samples, the seropositivity against COVID-19 in the general population of Ahmedabad is around 23.24%. The seropositivity has increasing trend with increasing age and is significantly higher among females (25.37%) than males (21.81%). The zone wise positivity ranged from 11.74% to 33.14%. This closely correlates with the cases recorded so far, higher for those zones with high current or past cases.Conclusions:Seropositivity of 23.24% in general population indicate the overall current level of protection. Since effective vaccine is not yet available, it is required to continue emphasis on the public health preventive measures for controlling and managing the COVID-19 pandemic.

Advances and challenges in marine conservation in Chile: A regional and global comparison

Abstract Despite significant progress made in Chile, and globally, in establishing marine protected areas (MPAs), the actual contribution to marine biodiversity conservation needs to be revised, to focus on representativeness and the diversity of tools alongside effective implementation, management, and enforcement. This study makes progress in this direction, describing the most recent advances in marine conservation in Chile and analysing the contribution of the different conservation instruments as well as the distribution of designated areas across ecoregions. Furthermore, it examines the potential contribution of alternative area‐based instruments to balance ocean protection. The advances observed in Chile were compared among four South American countries and five leading countries in ocean conservation, analysing protection levels in coastal areas, continental exclusive economic zones, and overseas territories. Data on MPA boundaries and attributes were sourced from the World Database on Protected Areas and complemented the official information on MPAs and territorial user rights for fisheries and for indigenous people in South America. The current level of protection in Chile is among the highest in the world in area coverage and in the proportion of the continental exclusive economic zone assigned to fully protected areas. However, it exhibits the strongest imbalances in the distribution of designated MPAs between coastal and oceanic waters, in comparison with the leading countries and also within South America (Perú, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay), and among ecoregions. The patterns observed suggest that Chile has advanced, but concentrated, conservation efforts in low‐threat, remote ecoregions. There is an urgent need to progress towards high‐threat ecoregions, which implies balancing the needs of nature and people. The distribution of ancillary conservation instruments can help double the level of protection in threatened coastal areas, filling gaps in marine conservation and creating an opportunity to progress and diversify conservation strategies.

Identifying high-density areas of oysters using species distribution modeling: Lessons for conservation of the native Ostrea edulis and management of the invasive Magallana (Crassostrea) gigas in Sweden.

AimUnderstanding spatial patterns of the distribution of adult native oyster, Ostrea edulis, and the invasive Magallana (Crassostrea) gigas is important for management of these populations. The aim of this study was to use ensemble SDM’s to (a) identify and predict conservation hotspots, (b) assess the current level of protection for O. edulis, and (c) quantify the amount of overlap between the two species where interactions with M. gigas are most likely.LocationSkagerrak, Sweden.MethodsWe used data collected by video at depths from 0.5 to 10 m in 436 sites. Models of occurrence and densities >1 m−2 were fitted and assessed using ensemble methods (“biomod2” package). Models of high‐density hotspots were used to predict, map, and quantify areal extent of the species in order to assess the degree of overlap with protected areas and the potential for interactions between the two species.ResultsBoth species were widely distributed in the region. Observations of high‐density habitats, mainly occurring at depths of ≈3 and 0.5 m for O. edulis and M. gigas, respectively, were found in 4% and 2% of the sites. Models provided useful predictions for both species (AUC = 0.85–0.99; sensitivity = 0.74–1.0; specificity = 0.72–0.97). High‐density areas occupy roughly 15 km2 each with substantial overlap between species. 50% of these are protected only by fisheries regulations, 44% are found in Natura 2000 reserves and 6% of the predicted O. edulis enjoys protection in a national park.Main conclusionsData collection by video in combination with SDM’s provides a realistic approach for large‐scale quantification of spatial patterns of marine population and habitats. O. edulis and M. gigas are common in the area, but a large proportion of the most valuable O. edulis habitats are not found in protected areas. The overlap between species suggests that efforts to manage the invasive M. gigas need to be integrated with management actions to conserve the native O. edulis.

Evaluating and expanding the European Union's protected-area network toward potential post-2020 coverage targets.

The Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) strategic plan will expire in 2020, but biodiversity loss is ongoing. Scientists call for more ambitious targets in the next agreement. The nature-needs-half movement, for example, has advocated conserving half of Earth to solve the biodiversity crisis, which has been translated to protecting 50% of each ecoregion. We evaluated current protection levels of ecoregions in the territory of one of the CBD's signatories, the European Union (EU). We also explored the possible enlargement of the Natura 2000 network to implement 30% or 50% ecoregion coverage in the EU member states' protected area (PA) network. Based on the most recent land-use data, we examined whether ecoregions have enough natural area left to reach such high coverage targets. We used a spatially explicit mixed integer programing model to estimate the least-cost expansion of the PA network based on 3 scenarios that put different emphasis on total conservation cost, ecological representation of ecosystems, or emphasize an equal share of the burden among member states. To realize 30% and 50% ecoregion coverage, the EU would need to add 6.6% and 24.2%, respectively, of its terrestrial area to its PA network. For all 3 scenarios, the EU would need to designate most recommended new PAs in seminatural forests and other semi- or natural ecosystems. Because 15 ecoregions did not have enough natural area left to implement the ecoregion-coverage targets, some member states would also need to establish new PAs on productive land, allocating the largest share to arable land. Thirty percent ecoregion coverage was met by protecting remaining natural areas in all ecoregions except 3, where productive land would also need to be included. Our results support discussions of higher ecoregions protection targets for post-2020 biodiversity frameworks.

Role of habitat definition on Aichi Target 11: Examples from New Caledonian coral reefs

The Aichi 2020 Biodiversity Targets are the backbone of many conservation projects. As the 2020 deadline is approaching, countries assess their progress. Target 11 (ABT11) calls for the protection of at least 10% of coastal and marine areas, while encouraging to focus on areas with particularly important habitats, notably for coral reefs. This target indirectly poses the question of the definition of habitats and their level of representation in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). We hypothesized that success or failure in achieving the targets could depend on how habitats are defined and considered. To address this issue, the current level of protection with respect to ABT11 is quantified for a hierarchical inventory of coral reef habitats in New Caledonia, a country with complex governance and diverse coral reefs. At the country scale, ABT11 is met with respect to broadly-defined coral reefs due to the presence of large MPAs. However, reserves are too spatially limited to comply with ABT11 at the provincial scale. The results appear dependent upon the hierarchical level of precision used to define habitats. While reefs as a whole meet Target 11, specific habitats, defined at a more detailed description levels, have varying levels of protection; and some do not meet ABT11. The results highlight that assessments of the achievement of the 11th Aichi target strongly depend upon spatial scales and habitat classification, at least for coral reefs. The findings suggest that Aichi compliance assessments worldwide need to take into account variability and biases linked to habitat description.

Assessing connectivity and the contribution of private lands to protected area networks in the United States.

Current targets for protected area network coverage call for increased protection but lack specificity in terms of criteria for parcel type, placement, and landscape connectivity. We assessed land conservation achieved by protected area networks in the contiguous United States, and assessed whether private lands contributed substantially to network coverage and connectivity given species dispersal abilities. On average, states have 4.1% (range: 0.2% to 15.8%, n = 48) protected area coverage with connectivity ≤10 km. Terrain ruggedness, percent farmland, and population density are the primary determinants of protected area placement, leading to biased representation of land features currently under protection. On average, private protected areas contribute <1.1% (range 0.0% to 9.2%) to current protected area coverage across the United States. We conclude that current levels of protection and connectivity are inadequate to support a functional protected area network, and that increased and strategic selection of private protected areas is necessary to meet conservation planning goals.

Coastal flood risks in China through the 21st century – An application of DIVA

China experiences frequent coastal flooding, with nearly US$ 77 billion of direct economic losses and over 7,000 fatalities reported from 1989 to 2014. Flood damages are likely to grow due to climate change induced sea-level rise and increasing exposure if no further adaptation measures are taken. This paper quantifies potential damage and adaptation costs of coastal flooding in China over the 21st Century, including the effects of sea-level rise. It develops and utilises a new, detailed coastal database of China developed within the Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability Assessment (DIVA) model framework. The refined database provides a more realistic spatial representation of coasts, with more than 2700 coastal segments, covering 28,966 km of coastline. Over 50% of China’s coast is artificial, representing defended coast and/or claimed land. Coastal flood damage and adaptation costs for China are assessed for different Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) and Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSP) combinations representing climate change and socio-economic change and two adaptation strategies: no upgrade of currently existing defences and maintaining current protection levels. By 2100, 0.7–20.0 million people may be flooded/yr and US$ 67–3,308 billion damages/yr are projected without upgrade to defences. In contrast, maintaining the current protection level would reduce those numbers to 0.2–0.4 million people flooded/yr and US$ 22–60 billion/yr flood costs by 2100, with protection investment costs of US$ 8–17 billion/yr. In 2100, maintaining current protection levels, dikes costs are two orders of magnitude smaller than flood costs across all scenarios, even without accounting for indirect damages. This research improves on earlier national assessments of China by generating a wider range of projections, based on improved datasets. The information delivered in this study will help governments, policy-makers, insurance companies and local communities in China understand risks and design appropriate strategies to adapt to increasing coastal flood risk in an uncertain world.

Geographical Indications within the Purview of the WTO as a Tool for the Promotion of Economic Interests and Cultural Heritage: Conflicting Positions between the Old World and the New World and Some Solutions Thereof

When it comes to intellectual property under the auspices of the WTO, the divide has always been between the developed countries on the one hand and the developing/least developed countries on the other. Developed countries who enjoy higher levels of innovative and have bigger economies have always pushed for an enhanced and more comprehensive intellectual property protection mechanisms. On the other hand, developing and least developed countries have always pushed back at these attempts. They regard the positions of the developed countries as efforts to force western-style legislation on them. But this has not been the case with Geographical Indications. The alliances and interests are not drawn on developed and developing/’least developed countries lines. They are rather drawn on the lines of the Old World on the one hand, and the New World on the other hand. The Old World is principally composed of European countries while the new world is predominantly composed of the countries born out of colonialism such as the United States, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Chile, South Africa, etc. interestingly, there is a third block which is mainly composed of major Asian ecnomies like China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, etc. Each faction has contradictory positions on what amounts to the appropriate levels of protection of GIs especially on foodstuffs and agricultural products. The Old World wants an enhanced protection on foodstuffs and agricultural products to the levels enjoyed by wines under the TRIPS Agreement. On the other hand, the New World regards the current levels of protection as enough, rigorously pushing back at all attempts at enhanced protection under WTO multilateral negotiations. The third block takes a somewhat compromising position between the two. These disagreements are partially responsible for the failure of the Doha Round of negotiations in the WTO. This paper explores the positions of the various alliances and the arguments that motivate their positions (economic interests and cultural heritage). It employs the case study of the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) between the EU and Canada to show how these differences in positions have been successfully laced together by these two trade giants who both represent the two opposing factions. It concludes that with the right amount of will power, this can (though not easily) be replicated in the WTO ongoing multilateral negotiations.

Protecting Species through Legislation: The Case of Sea Turtles

We evaluate the effectiveness of legislation in reducing the negative impacts of beachfront lighting on sea turtle nesting activity, one of the main threats to the species. To this end we construct a time varying index of ordinance effectiveness across Florida counties and combine this with loggerhead nesting data to create a panel data set covering a twenty‐six year period. Our econometric findings show that such legislation can significantly increase nesting activity, where current levels of protection result in an additional 34%. Using our estimates within a calibrated population model we also demonstrate that legislation can reduce the time to the animals’ extinction. Finally, when considering estimates of local willingness to pay for sea turtle preservation, we show that alternatively raising sea turtles in captivity under a head start program may be prohibitively expensive.

The ownership of genetic data: from data to information

In France, genetic data are not covered by property laws. They are considered to be equivalent to a part of the human body, to be protected rather than as something of economic value. However, in this highly competitive world, France must find solutions to increase the scientific and economic values of its genetic data. One possibility would be to define genetic data as raw information with no value for use. The choice of such a value of use (clinical, scientific, economic, etc.), following various key analysis and treatment processes will thus transform genetic data into useful information. In this case, and under certain conditions, intellectual property law could consider this information to be an original creation with an economic value, whilst maintaining current levels of protection for genetic data. France thus faces a choice between changing its laws concerning the protection of genetic data, bringing them into line with the North American approach, according to which data are a form of capital that everyone has the right to increase or sell, and making the distinction between genetic data and information clearer.