Current L2 Research Articles

How language teachers can go beyond speech etiquette: Adapting L2 Russian coursebooks to improve pragmatic competence

Within the field of RKI – russkij kak inostrannyj ‘Russian as a Foreign Language/L2 Russian’, so far little attention has been paid to teaching pragmatic competence, as the issues of language in context are traditionally covered by the subject rečevoj ėtiket ‘speech etiquette’, leaving pragmatics an underexplored field.The present study aims to analyze whether and to what extent current L2 Russian textbooks introduce topics related to pragmatics and, if so, how the existing material can be adapted to improve explicit instruction of pragmatic competence.The analysis was conducted on two handbooks of Russian rečevoj ėtiket ‘speech etiquette’ for L2 learners and a series of four textbooks designed for L1 Italian learners. Data analysis confirms the global tendency for textbooks to provide scarce to null meta-pragmatic explanations. The coursebooks were then searched for elements related to the speech act of request, and the materials were adapted to fit explicit pragmatic instruction. The material adaptations proposed in the current study are based on previous research on Russian pragmatics and L2 pragmatics and aim to overcome the ethno-nationalistic perspective of speech etiquette toward a more transnational Russophone context. Implications for teacher education are presented.

Listenership always matters: active listening ability in L2 business English paired speaking tasks

Abstract Active listening, foundational for meaningful social interaction, plays a pivotal role in enhancing interactional competence (IC) during dialogues. Despite its importance, current second language (L2) assessments, such as the TOEFL iBT and the Business English Certificate (BEC) Preliminary, notably does not include active listening in their evaluation metrics. The research presented here contributes significantly to this discourse by foregrounding the imperative of listener responses (LRs) in L2 communication and the diverse interactional functions they serve across different cultures. Notably, variations emerge, with Chinese speakers exhibiting more restrained verbal feedback compared to the more vocally expressive English counterparts. This study stands apart by underscoring the necessity of updating current L2 assessment rubrics, which currently prioritize grammatical proficiency, pronunciation, and vocabulary. By weaving in active listening, assessments can become more holistic, capturing more comprehensively a learner’s L2 interactional ability. Through rigorous quantitative and qualitative methodologies, this investigation probes the influence of active listening on BEC speaking test outcomes. Its findings are poised to revolutionize assessment strategies, urging a more encompassing approach that factors in both verbal and non-verbal cues, thereby reflecting genuine linguistic and interactional competence.

Exploring the direct and indirect effects of EFL learners’ online motivational self-system on their online language learning acceptance: the new roles of current L2 self and digital self-authenticity

The impact of students' intrinsic or extrinsic motivations on their future intentions for online language schooling has been widely documented, but further emphasis needs to be placed on examining motivation beyond traditional theories. Thus, the current study sought to pivot the focus from intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to university language learners’ L2 self-identities in shaping their intention to learn language online. Toward this, we extended the technology acceptance model by integrating language learners’ L2 motivational self-system (L2MSS). Accordingly, 422 Iranian territory students who learned language online completed surveys covering language motivation and attitudes toward online language learning. The results of partial least squares structural equation modeling validated that current L2-self and digital self-authenticity can be used as separable subcomponents of L2MSS in the Iranian territory context. Moreover, learners with a higher level of future self-image and current L2 self-description found online learning more useful and easy to use. A further finding revealed an authenticity gap among higher educators since they were more motivated to learn language online than in face-to-face classrooms. Besides introducing a new conceptual framework into the literature, the researchers suggest that as a way of influencing higher education language learners’ intentions towards online language learning, lecturers should uncover language learners’ future ideal selves in advance of attending this online language course and design their language syllabus accordingly. It is also imperative for instructors to encourage students to self-describe their progress during online courses as it influenced their behavioral intention to learn languages online.

Ideal L2 Pre-service Teacher Selves: The Case of University Pre-service Teachers in Costa Rica

The ‘L2 Motivational Self System’ (L2MSS) (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015) sheds light on theoretical tenets for research in language learner motivation. The L2MSS has been adapted into the ‘Possible Language Teacher Self’ (PLTS) (Kubanyiova, 2009) to explore language teacher motivation. Nonetheless, there is scarce research on a self-system for L2 pre-service teachers. Therefore, in this qualitative study, the characteristics of the Ideal L2 Pre-Service Teacher Self were explored to identify a possible motivational self-system. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted and thematic analysis was implemented. Participants (N=2) were pre-service L2 teachers from a university in Costa Rica. Findings revealed that participants mentioned four common traits of an ideal L2 pre-service teacher self: (1) passion, (2) knowledge, (3) adaptability, and (4) language proficiency. Contrary to Kubanyiova’s (2009) PLTS and Dörnyei’s (2009b) and Dörnyei & Ryan’s (2015) L2MSS, both participants share an ‘L2 Pre-service Teacher Self System’ including four elements: (1) Ideal L2 Pre-service Teacher Self, (2) ought-to L2 Pre-service Teacher Self, (3) current L2 Pre-service Teacher Self, and (4) Feared L2 Teacher Self. It is discussed and concluded that a PLTS system might include the elements just mentioned. However, further exploration on an L2 Pre-Service Teacher Self is mandatory to better understand the motivation and self-identity of L2 pre-service teachers.

A machine learning approach for computation of cardiovascular intrinsic frequencies.

Analysis of cardiovascular waveforms provides valuable clinical information about the state of health and disease. The intrinsic frequency (IF) method is a recently introduced framework that uses a single arterial pressure waveform to extract physiologically relevant information about the cardiovascular system. The clinical usefulness and physiological accuracy of the IF method have been well-established via several preclinical and clinical studies. However, the computational complexity of the current L2 optimization solver for IF calculations remains a bottleneck for practical deployment of the IF method in real-time settings. In this paper, we propose a machine learning (ML)-based methodology for determination of IF parameters from a single carotid waveform. We use a sequentially-reduced Feedforward Neural Network (FNN) model for mapping carotid waveforms to the output parameters of the IF method, thereby avoiding the non-convex L2 minimization problem arising from the conventional IF approach. Our methodology also includes procedures for data pre-processing, model training, and model evaluation. In our model development, we used both clinical and synthetic waveforms. Our clinical database is composed of carotid waveforms from two different sources: the Huntington Medical Research Institutes (HMRI) iPhone Heart Study and the Framingham Heart Study (FHS). In the HMRI and FHS clinical studies, various device platforms such as piezoelectric tonometry, optical tonometry (Vivio), and an iPhone camera were used to measure arterial waveforms. Our blind clinical test shows very strong correlations between IF parameters computed from the FNN-based method and those computed from the standard L2 optimization-based method (i.e., R≥0.93 and P-value ≤0.005 for each IF parameter). Our results also demonstrate that the performance of the FNN-based IF model introduced in this work is independent of measurement apparatus and of device sampling rate.

From Research in the Lab to Pedagogical Practices in the EFL Classroom: The Case of Task-Based Pronunciation Teaching

Input and context-related factors identified by research as key success variables in L2 pronunciation development in immersion contexts play a very modest role in instructed foreign language (FL) learning environments. Scarce L2 exposure and use and L1-accented input make pronunciation learning extremely challenging. Current L2 speech learning models attribute difficulties in L2 speech acquisition to L2-to-L1 perceptual sound mappings guided by L1-based perception and poor phonological awareness and noticing of cross-language phonetic differences, which are typically not adequately addressed in instruction through pedagogic tasks. Explicit and incidental pronunciation teaching methods have been found effective at improving learners’ pronunciation, but ways to integrate them into communicative approaches to language teaching are still largely unexplored. Thus, language education practices currently lack a research-informed pedagogical approach that incorporates principles of L2 speech learning and task-based language teaching (TBLT) into pronunciation instruction. This article (1) presents an outline of new avenues for research and practice in L2 pronunciation instruction and (2) reports on the findings of an empirical study that implemented a task-based pronunciation teaching (TBPT) approach to teaching a difficult L2 vowel contrast through computerized collaborative map tasks that could be easily integrated into communicative FL classrooms.

The impact of multi‐word units in early foreign language learning and teaching contexts: A systematic review

AbstractThis systematic review reports on research investigating the impact of multi‐word unit (MWU) input on young learners' second language (L2) attainment in instructed settings. Recent findings suggest that L2 learners can generalise from MWU input, abstract patterns and employ such schemata productively via slot‐filling, indicating that MWUs are key catalysts of learners' L2 development. Simultaneously, primary school L2 instruction is on the rise worldwide and the importance of MWUs is acknowledged in curricula, teacher education and teaching materials. Therefore, the incentive of this review is to systematically report the state of the art of research regarding the impact of MWU instruction in early L2 teaching contexts. The review covers English, German and French research into typically developing monolingual children aged 5–12 learning an L2 in instructed teaching settings. Only two of the total results (n = 2233) met the inclusion criteria. Following quality assessment using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool and based on a narrative synthesis of available results, we cannot report trustworthy evidence of the effectiveness of teaching MWUs to young L2 learners. We highlight the lack of research evidence and conclude that existing research lacks robust evidence that MWU input already established in teaching contexts has a measurable effect on specific aspects of students' L2 attainment, such as productive skills. Although we promote MWU's potentially facilitating role in L2 development, we call for more classroom‐based intervention research on MWUs in primary school contexts to enable much‐needed evidence‐based recommendations for L2 teaching to support L2 learning outcomes in primary schools. Context and implicationsRationale for this studyResearch has shown that multi‐word units (MWUs) are key catalysts for L1 and L2 learning. MWUs are crucial to current primary school L2 teaching and their importance is acknowledged in curricula. This review systematically examines the scientific evidence for the effectiveness of MWU instruction on L2 attainment.Why the findings matterOur review cannot report trustworthy evidence of the effectiveness of teaching MWUs to young L2 learners. This lack of evidence is striking since early L2 instruction is on the rise worldwide and MWUs are already integral parts of L2 curricula, teacher education and teaching materials.Implications for the research community and policy makersGiven our findings, we call for more research in instructed settings to better understand the impact of MWU input on specific aspects of students' L2 attainment, such as productive skills. Based on such work, researchers could provide policy makers and practitioners with evidence‐based recommendations that help integrate MWU input into L2 curricula and teaching in such a way that is most beneficial for young students' L2 attainment.

A Multidimensional Analysis of Language Use in English Argumentative Essays: An Evidence From Comparable Corpora

Multidimensional (MD) analysis contributes to a comprehensive linguistic description of second language (L2) writing texts. However, cross-linguistic studies based on MD analysis are still insufficient and need to be increased. In particular, the unavailability of comparable corpora prevents current MD-based L2 writing research from making reliable comparisons of linguistic differences between native writers and L2 learners. Considering these, this study adopts corpora of maximum similarity for the cross-linguistic comparative analysis. Using Biber’s MD analysis, this study compares linguistic differences between native English writers and Chinese English learners in argumentative essays with similar communicative purposes. The analysis reveals that the two groups of texts show significant differences in slightly over half of the individual linguistic features but share more similarities than differences in textual dimensions. It also shows that the two groups are, in fact, different varieties of English language use, even though they share a similar text type of “involved persuasion.” The results confirm the importance of comparable corpora for cross-linguistic comparisons and the necessity of MD analysis for understanding L2 writing.

Effect of L2 exposure, length of study, and L2 proficiency on EFL learners’ receptive knowledge of form–meaning connection and collocations of high-frequency words

High-frequency words are single-words at the first three 1,000-word frequency levels. No studies have explored the impact of current second language (L2) exposure, length of study, and L2 proficiency on the receptive knowledge of high-frequency words of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) from non-cognate first language (L1) background. To address this gap, this study used the Updated Vocabulary Levels Test and the Receptive Collocation Test to measure the receptive knowledge of form–meaning connection and collocations of high-frequency words of 201 Chinese EFL postgraduate students. It also surveyed these students’ amount of current L2 exposure, length of study, and L2 proficiency. The results showed that, on average, the participants had 20.22 hours of exposure to various types of L2 input per week in and out of class. A series of single linear mixed-effects model analyses revealed that their current L2 exposure and length of study did not seem to have an impact on their knowledge of form–meaning connection of high-frequency words nor their collocational knowledge of these words overall. Yet, L2 proficiency significantly affected their knowledge of form–meaning connection and collocations of the 1st 1,000 words. Knowledge of form–meaning connection also contributed to the collocational knowledge. Pedagogical implications for vocabulary researchers and practitioners were provided.

Developing L2 learners’ metaphoric competence: a case study of figurative motion constructions

AbstractThis study compares two instruction methods (cognitive and traditional) for teaching complex metaphorical motion constructions in Spanish and developing A2+ learners’ metaphoric competence in the L2. The cognitive instruction combined insights from the Conceptual Metaphor Theory with multimodal content and cognitive parameters, whereas the traditional package followed a communicative and formalist approach to language based on most current L2 textbooks. A group of 33 university students from a North American-based College participated in the experiment. Assessment tests were designed inspired by cognitive linguistics tenets and measured learners’ general metaphor comprehension (Task 1) and original production (Task 2), as well as performance in the comprehension (Task 3) and production (Task 4) of change-of-state constructions, thus breaking with the pervading assessment typology for empirical studies in applied cognitive linguistics. The cognitive methodology proved to be significantly more beneficial for all four tasks. Although students who received a traditional instruction improved over time, those from the cognitive group showed statistically higher performance in metaphoric competence and in the comprehension and production of the target constructions. These findings clearly suggest that a cognitive-based instruction, when followed by a consistent assessment, is an effective approach to teaching and learning difficult constructions in the L2.

From theory to practice: Understanding the long-term impact of an L2 writing education course on writing teachers

Research on second language (L2) writing tends to focus much more on student learning of writing than teachers’ teaching and learning of the teaching of writing. While a few studies have considered the influence of formal education on teachers’ L2 writing instruction, such as by examining the changes in teacher beliefs and practices across one semester (Lee, 2010), little is known about the long-term impact (e.g., 2 or 3 years) of such training on the professional development of L2 writing teachers. The present study adopted a multiple-case study approach to examine the long-term effects of a course on teaching L2 writing on five teachers of writing who taught writing in different contexts (primary school, secondary school, private language training center, and university) in the Chinese EFL context and how the teachers may apply the theoretical knowledge and recommended pedagogies presented in such a course. Drawing upon multiple sources of data, including interviews, stimulated recalls, and teaching materials, this study revealed that despite the peripheral position of writing in current L2 literacy education, training teachers to teach L2 writing can have both immediate and lasting effects on their thinking, practices, and learning as L2 writing teachers. The course enhanced the teachers’ understanding of L2 writing and writing instruction and enabled them to adopt new pedagogies and feedback practices, whereas previously they had neglected writing instruction and taught writing based on their prior learning experiences. However, the teachers’ teaching experience determined their appropriation of the new pedagogies when contextual constraints such as students’ language proficiency, limited class hours, and exam pressure hindered their adoption of the changes. The study draws attention to L2 teachers’ knowledge gaps (thinking), their teaching practices, and their learning to teach writing (learning) and elucidates the impact of educating language teachers to teach writing across various educational settings.

L2 translation practice in Spain: Report on a survey of professional translators

Recent research has shown that L2 translation —translation from the first language (L1) into the second language (L2)— is a regular practice in many countries where languages of limited diffusion are used. But is L2 translation an unusual task in major-language cultures? Is there an L2 translation market for these languages? This paper aims to report on a survey-based study that explores current L2 translation practice in Spain: a survey of over 200 L1-Spanish translators was conducted to gather information about their professional practice and their attitudes regarding directionality. Data collection method used consisted of a web-based questionnaire partially based on Roiss (2001) and administered directly on an Internet site. Multi-modal methods of survey advertising and recruitment of respondents were used. Preliminary findings show that over 75% of translators, to a greater or lesser extent, engage in L2 translation, and that almost 20% do it more than half of their time, with English being by far the most widely translated L2. Additionally, responses suggest that more than half of the translators support L2 translation education in university settings.

Analysing the relationship between L2 production and different stages of L2 processing: Eye-tracking and acoustic evidence for a novel contrast

This study analyses the relationship between native English speakers’ perception and production of the novel French /y/–/u/ contrast. Acoustic data were extracted from the learners’ production of French minimal pairs contrasting these French vowels and compared with their processing of the same items in a Visual World eye-tracking task. Results reveal that the vowel most acoustically similar to the learners’ native English /u/ vowel, French /y/, is both easier to identify at early processing stages and more acoustically similar to a native French control group in production, indicating a perception-production relationship. Furthermore, analyses of individual variation reveal that the learners who process both /y/ and /u/ more successfully at later processing stages are also more likely to mark a greater distinction between these phonemes in production. Together, these results indicate a relationship between L2 processing and L2 production at multiple levels. Implications for current L2 speech models are discussed.

Acquisition of morphology by L2 children in naturalistic environments: a case of Japanese case markers

Abstract This study investigated the second language (L2) acquisition of Japanese case markers among children in naturalistic environments. L2 Japanese children with Chinese backgrounds (n = 187) and monolingual Japanese children (n = 280) were tested on their productive knowledge of four case markers: ga, o, ni, and de. Test scores correlated more strongly with length of residence (LOR) than age of acquisition in the current L2 group (LOR mean = 4.98 years). Most L2 children reached age-matched monolingual norms after an LOR of 2–5 years, although some did not reach the norms within this time frame. The nominative and accusative case markers, ga and o, were generally easier than the other two case markers, even though there are no equivalent morphological markers in Chinese. This indicates that the absence of these markers in the first language is not always a determining factor for the difficulty in naturalistic child L2 acquisition.

Bridging the gap between ELF and L2 learners’ use of communication strategies: Rethinking current L2 assessment and teaching practices

The emergence of English as a lingua franca (ELF) has focused scholarly attention on non-native speakers' use of communication strategies (CSs) in international communication, which places emphasis on ensuring mutual understanding. With reference to previous ELF pragmatics research, this study examined the extent to which L2 learners' use of CSs reflects that in ELF interactions in a group interaction task in Hong Kong's high-stakes public examination. Our analysis of the students' CSs use was accompanied by semi-structured focus group interviews, allowing them to reflect on their own performance and prior English learning/use experience. The findings revealed an unnatural discursive pattern resulting from the assessment task design, although some CSs were found that have been identified in previous ELF studies. Students with higher academic attainment were more capable of using some higher-level CSs and diversifying their language forms, but this was mainly because of their higher English proficiency level/motivation, exposure to English and awareness of effective communication rather than their prior English-learning experience in the classroom. The paper concludes by offering suggestions for the design of communicative tasks and language learning/teaching practices to address the misalignment between L2 students' pragmatic production and naturalistic ELF situations.

Regulacyjna funkcja intuicji językowej w rozwijaniu podsystemu leksykalno-semantycznego: test wnioskowania znaczeń w limitowanym czasie

The paper emphasizes the role of linguistic intuition in current L2 processing. Intuition, as a mental disposition operating in implicit systems, is in close correlation with working memory. It infers quick, almost immediate meaning of un unknown word which appears in a context. Linguistic intuition has a regulatory function, i.e. it allows to continue language activities and overcome linguistic deficits. In the second part, Timed inference test as a tool for developing and testing vocabulary is proposed as well as the results of the empirical study on intuitive behaviour in L2. The results of the study show that inference of word’s meaning under time constraint is lower that the results of inference without time pressure. The study involves a group of 102 students of French as a foreign language at B1 level.

Current L2 self-concept of Finnish comprehensive school students: The role of grades, parents, peers, and society

L2 (second/foreign language) motivation research in Finland has been scarce. Furthermore, international motivational research has focused more on ideal and ought-to selves, leaving the current L2 self-concept in the background. In the present study, we attempted to address this gap, exploring what shapes L1 (mother tongue) Finnish students' understanding of themselves as users and learners of L2s. Using structural equation modelling, we studied the relationships between students' (n = 1,206) current L2 self-concept and parental encouragement, peer pressure, societal expectations, and grades. We further studied which of these factors are the best predictors of students' current L2 self-concept. We explored these relationships separately for English and languages other than English (LOTEs). The analysis showed that while in both groups, students' grades and societal expectations shaped students' current L2 self-concept the most, other factors played a greater role in the LOTEs group than in the English group. We discuss these findings with reference to the teacher's role in shaping students' current L2 self-concept.

Impact of Foreign Direct Investment on Welfare in Africa: Empirical Evidence from Guinea

The recent economic and financial hardship has resuscitated controversies over the role of Foreign Capital in economic growth and welfare enhancement in emerging nations, particularly in Guinea. The literature that scrutinizes the causal interaction among FDI and poverty alleviation is relatively abundant, the fundamental statement shared by these empirical studies is that GDP growth is assumed to be relevant proxy of people well-being. However, Guinea and its FDI attraction policies have not been well approached by some of these paper. This empirical study examines the interaction between FDI inflows and poverty alleviation in Guinea from 1990 to 2017. The Human Development Index (HDI) and the per capita FDI net inflows are respectively employed as key welfare and FDI indicators.The findings from the Error Correction Model (ECM) confirm that, in the long term the variables converge in the same direction. The outcomes also exhibit that per capita FDI in the long run, negatively impacts welfare but not significantly, while Inflation’s coefficient remains positive and significant. With trade openness, we still found the same positive interaction but not significant. The results from the Auto Regressive Distributed Lag Model (ARDL) exhibit that per capita FDI flows [current value and L2.] have positive but not significant impact on HDI whereas FDI [L1] has a negative interaction with welfare at 10% significance level. The trade openness variable [current value] is negatively but not significantly associated with HDI, while inflation [L1 and L2] influence on human advancement is positive and significant.Overall, Foreign direct investment in Guinea is still resource seeking investment which impact on the domestic economy is very limited. Hence, government should introduce new policies and incentives in order to attract more market seeking or other types of FDI that may promote inclusive growth and alleviate poverty.

Sources of variation at the onset of bilingualism: The differential effect of input factors, AOA, and cognitive skills on HL Arabic and L2 English syntax.

Despite growing research on individual differences in child bilinguals, few studies have focused on the development of syntax, included both languages, and studied newly arrived school-age migrant children. Accordingly, this study investigated the syntactic development of heritage language (HL) Syrian Arabic and L2 English by Syrian refugee children (N = 119) recently arrived in Canada using a sentence repetition task. Regression analyses showed that a partially overlapping set of child-level (input and cognitive skills) and language-level (syntactic structure) factors accounted for performance in each language. HL performance was particularly sensitive to language, cognitive, and input variables indexing cumulative HL exposure. L2 performance, however, was sensitive to cognitive and environmental variables indexing current and cumulative L2 use. Finally, despite stronger performance in Arabic than in English, results revealed interdependence between the two languages, indicating that participants with stronger syntactic abilities in their HL tended to have stronger syntactic abilities in their emerging L2.

L2 motivational self system and willingness to communicate in the classroom and extramural digital contexts

This study explores the relationship between the L2 Motivational Self System—namely, the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self—and L2 Willingness to Communicate (L2 WTC) in the classroom (a typical place for English communication among EFL learners) and in the extramural digital setting (an emerging English communication channel increasingly used by young EFL learners). To this end, 417 Chinese EFL middle school students (ages 12 to 14) participated in the study. After controlling for demographic factors hierarchical multiple regression results showed that the ideal L2 self significantly predicted L2 WTC both in the classroom and in an extramural digital setting. Interview data (n = 4) also elaborated that students attempted to lessen the discrepancy between their current L2 self (e.g., EFL learners) and ideal L2 self-images (e.g., discussing the professional National Basketball Association in an American radio program) by becoming more willing to communicate in both communication environments. In addition to new research directions, these results offer pedagogical implications that the ideal L2 self can facilitate L2 communication orientation in in-class and out-of-class digital environments, both of which are typically venues for L2 communication among today’s young EFL learners.