Current Feeding Practices Research Articles

What are the trans fatty acids issues in foods after discontinuation of industrially produced trans fats? Ruminant products, vegetable oils, and synthetic supplements

Adverse health effect of trans fatty acids (TFAs) are well recognized, which has precipitated efforts to reduce their content in food products. With the decline of dietary TFAs derived from partial oil hydrogenation, interest is focused on the remaining sources of dietary TFAs derived from ruminants (rTFA), deodorized vegetable oils, trans isomerization during frying, and synthetic conjugated FA (CFA) supplements. Partial hydrogenation and heat‐treated oils result in a random distribution of TFA isomers, whereas rTFAs contain specific isomers resulting from enzymatic processes. Reviews of human observational and metabolic intervention studies have suggested that consumption of rTFAs at current levels should not raise health concerns. However, these studies were not based on rTFA levels currently sold in retail markets. Current feeding practices of ruminants result in higher total TFAs with trans‐18:1 isomers other than vaccenic acid, and many CFAs other than rumenic acid. The definition of TFA adopted by several countries does not distinguish among isolated TFAs of concern and ignores CFAs that should be included in total TFA due to their negative health effects. Accurate TFA definition establishment and nutritional assessment of individual TFA isomers is needed for labeling purposes. Also required are adoptions of analytical methods to resolve all TFA isomers. This information can then be used to construct a database and as a basis for meaningful recommendations.Practical applications: Areas that require further investigations have been identified: 1) Establish a uniform TFA nomenclature based on chemical structure. 2) Standardize, assess and normalize appropriate methodologies for the analysis of TFAs. 3) Synthesize pure reference standards for TFA identification. 4) Report total TFA levels with undesirable biological activities rather than total TFA content. 5) Assess the nutritional characteristics of individual TFAs independent of their origin. 6) Develop strategies to increase the content of desirable TFA isomers in ruminants. 7) Identify potential bioactive trans metabolites produced from PUFAs in ruminants. 8) Develop labeling regulations based on specific chemical structures and physiological effects regardless of their origin. 9) Construct an accurate database complemented with specific surveys of ruminant product fatty acid (FA) composition that can be accessed by regulatory agencies to make appropriate TFA recommendations.

Highlight Article summary: What are the trans fatty acids issues in foods after discontinuation of industrially produced trans fats? Ruminant products, vegetable oils, and synthetic supplements

SUMMARYAdverse health effect of trans fatty acids (TFAs) are well recognized, which has precipitated efforts to reduce their content in food products. With the decline of dietary TFAs derived from partial oil hydrogenation, interest is focused on the remaining sources of dietary TFAs derived from ruminants (rTFA), deodorized vegetable oils, trans isomerization during frying, and synthetic conjugated FA (CFA) supplements. Partial hydrogenation and heat‐treated oils result in a random distribution of TFA isomers, whereas rTFAs contain specific isomers resulting from enzymatic processes. Reviews of human observational and metabolic intervention studies have suggested that consumption of rTFAs at current levels should not raise health concerns. However, these studies were not based on rTFA levels currently sold in retail markets. Current feeding practices of ruminants result in higher total TFAs with trans‐18:1 isomers other than vaccenic acid, and many CFAs other than rumenic acid. The definition of TFA adopted by several countries does not distinguish among isolated TFAs of concern and ignores CFAs that should be included in total TFA due to their negative health effects. Accurate TFA definition establishment and nutritional assessment of individual TFA isomers is needed for labeling purposes. Also required are adoptions of analytical methods to resolve all TFA isomers. This information can then be used to construct a database and as a basis for meaningful recommendations.Practical applications: Areas that require further investigations have been identified: 1) Establish a uniform TFA nomenclature based on chemical structure. 2) Standardize, assess and normalize appropriate methodologies for the analysis of TFAs. 3) Synthesize pure reference standards for TFA identification. 4) Report individual TFA levels with different biological activities rather than total TFA content. 5) Assess the nutritional characteristics of individual TFAs independent of their origin. 6) Develop strategies to increase the content of desirable TFA isomers in ruminants. 7) Identify potential bioactive trans metabolites produced from PUFAs in ruminants. 8) Develop labeling regulations based on specific chemical structures and physiological effects regardless of their origin. 9) Construct an accurate database complemented with specific surveys of ruminant product FA composition that can be accessed by regulatory agencies to make appropriate TFA recommendations.

Adolescents' Level of Eating Psychopathology Is Related to Perceptions of Their Parents' Current Feeding Practices

This study aimed to examine the relationships between adolescents' eating disorder attitudes and their perceptions of the feeding practices that their parents/caregivers currently use. Boys and girls (N= 528) aged 13-15 completed self-report measures of their levels of eating psychopathology and their parents' current feeding practices and reported their own height and weight. For girls, greater perceived pressure from parents to eat food and lower perceived parental responsibility for food were significantly related to more unhealthy eating-related attitudes. Similar to girls, lower perceived parental responsibility for food was significantly related to greater levels of eating psychopathology in boys. Greater perceived parental restriction of foods was also significantly related to greater eating psychopathology in boys. These results suggest that adolescents' perceptions of their parents' use of more controlling feeding practices are related to greater prevalence of unhealthy eating-related attitudes. Such findings have potentially important implications for the prevention of disordered eating in adolescents.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of infant feeding strategies to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV in South Africa

Despite increasing availability of perinatal interventions to prevent mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV in South Africa, MTCT remains high due to breastfeeding. To inform policy decisions in the country, cost-effectiveness of alternative infant-feeding interventions was conducted. Mathematical modelling was used to simulate post-natal transmission and mortality due to infant feeding in a hypothetical cohort of 1 000 HIV-exposed infants. Lifetime costs to the health system were calculated for each strategy. Interventions compared with current practice were: increasing coverage of extended nevirapine prophylaxis (ENP) to infants from 30% (base case) to 60% without changing current feeding practices; actively supporting breastfeeding with ENP to infants for 12 months; and actively supporting exclusive formula (replacement) feeding for 6 months. HIV-free survival at 24 months and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted were estimated for typical rural and certain urban settings. Base-case analysis revealed that expanding coverage of nevirapine prophylaxis with breastfeeding is cost-saving and improves HIV-free survival. Changing feeding practices is beneficial, depending on context. Breastfeeding is dominant (less costly, more effective) in rural settings, whilst formula feeding is a dominant strategy in urban settings. Cost-effectiveness was most sensitive to proportion of women on lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) and infant mortality rate (IMR). When >55% of women are on ART, breastfeeding dominates in the urban settings modelled, whilst formula feeding is cost-effective in rural settings when IMR ≤ 45/1000. The study concludes that strategies to support breastfeeding are essential. Strengthening health systems is critical to ensure optimal nevirapine delivery during breastfeeding. A case can be made for formula feeding or breastfeeding in HIV-infected women in specific contexts.

Feeding practices for captive greater kudus ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros) in UK collections as compared to diets of free -ranging specimens

Diet-related disorders occur frequently in captive browsing ruminants. To assess current feeding practices, diets of 15 captive greater kudus ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros ) from three zoological collections were compared to that of free-ranging conspecifics and current feeding recommendations. Dry matter intake (DMI) varied considerably in captivity from 49.2 to 75.7 g dry matter kg BM -0.75 d -1 . Roughage intake determined DMI; with a low DMI associated with low body condition scores (BCS). Compared to free-ranging kudus with diets of 11.1-14.2% crude protein (CP), only one collection had a diet with a similar CP concentration (13.0%), the other collections providing diets with CP of 15.1-16.8%. Acid detergent fibre (ADF) in the zoo diets was comparable to that in the diet of free-ranging animals (24.7-29.4%), but the latter consumed diets with less cellulose and more lignin. In addition, faecal consistency scores (FS) were positively correlated with dietary CP and faecal nitrogen, and negatively with faecal ADF, indicating that higher proportions of highly digestible feeds caused softer faeces. In total, only four of fifteen captive individuals had normal BCS 3.0 and FS 1.0. These results suggest that diets fed to captive browsing ruminants are too digestible, even in terms of fibre composition. Recommendations for higher CP may be unnecessary. Providing browse and high quality lucerne hay may increase the proportion of roughages in the diet and overall DMI to meet requirements and recommendations. To balance the diet and reduce digestibility, the pellets should have lower levels of CP, starch and sugar, and a higher level of fibre, particularly lignin.

Estimates of Exclusive Breastfeeding Rates among Mother—Infant Dyads in Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, Vary According to Interview Method and Time Frame

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding, defined as receiving only breastmilk, through the first 6 months of life to optimize survival, health, and development. To assess exclusive and predominant breastfeeding rates, as defined by WHO, in a sample of Guatemalan infants using three dietary assessment methods. Mothers of 156 infants (78 boys and 78 girls) in the 6th month of life, attending a public health center in Quetzaltenango, an urban area located in the Highlands of Guatemala, were recruited. A single face-to-face interview was performed to assess infant dietary intake using three methods: previous day dietary recall (as suggested by WHO), current feeding practices, and recall of feeding practices since birth. Based on the previous day dietary recall method, exclusive breastfeeding was reported by 87 (56%) of the mothers. Exclusive breastfeeding rates were much lower when estimated by current feeding practices questions (20%) and even lower when based on recall of feeding practices since birth (9%). The sum of exclusive and predominant breastfeeding (full breastfeeding) rates was 58%, 49%, and 31% based on previous day dietary recall, current feeding practices, and recall of feeding practices since birth, respectively. The WHO method of dietary assessment, based solely on the previous day dietary recall, overestimates the exclusive breastfeeding rate compared with recall of feeding practices since birth. In our population sample, adherence to the WHO guidelines for feeding in the first semester of infancy was less than ideal and in need of strengthening.

Enteral feeding in head and neck cancer patients at a UK cancer centre

Patients undergoing radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy treatment for head and neck cancer have an increased risk of malnutrition, and may require enteral feeding via nasogastric or gastrostomy tube. The aim of this audit was to examine current enteral feeding practice, mortality, morbidity and 6-month outcome data of head and neck cancer patients receiving radical (chemo)radiotherapy at a regional cancer centre and to compare the results with a regional head and neck cancer gastrostomy audit. A 2-year audit was conducted (2006-2008). Inclusion criteria were all adult patients diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck, receiving radical radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy treatment. The first-year data were collected retrospectively, and the second-year data were collected prospectively. Data were collected on all patients requiring enteral feeding with 6-month outcome data relating to route of nutrition. Approximately 14% (n = 32/223) of patients were admitted for nasogastric feeding as a result of inadequate oral alimentation. On admission, 94% were at risk of refeeding syndrome, taking a mean (SD) of 11 (4.9) days to reach full nutritional requirements. Mean (SD) length of hospital stay was 13 (5.1) days. No major complications from nasogastric tube insertion were found. The mean (SD) length of nasogastric feeding was 72 (20.1) days with 89.6% managing full nutritional requirements orally at 6 months. Patients requiring enteral feeding during treatment were fed via a nasogastric tube, rather than via a prophylactic gastrostomy tube. Compared with the regional gastrostomy audit results, our patients had a lower clinical risk/complication rate, with a greater proportion tolerating full oral intake at 6 months. Therefore, nasogastric feeding, rather than prophylactic gastrostomy tube feeding, could be a more appropriate method of enteral feeding in this patient group.

Survey of current Swiss pig feeding practices and potential for ammonia emission reduction

SummaryControlling potentially harmful and polluting emissions from farms is important in the developed world, where legislation exists in many countries limiting emissions such as ammonia and controlling how manure is disposed of from intensive farming operations. In Switzerland, there are legal agreements concerning controls of ammonia emissions, most especially from farms. Ammonia production from pig farms can be controlled by dietary intervention, such as reducing protein levels, which in turn reduces excretion, mainly via urine. The following paper surveys current practices for nitrogen use on Swiss pig farms, and how feeding strategies may assist in controlling ammonia production from pig production systems. The survey found that 70-75% of all feeds used for pigs of all categories were reduced in protein and nitrogen, with 90% being reduced in protein in high animal density areas. Regression analysis showed that CP levels explained up to 49% of the nitrogen efficiency, suggesting that other factors are important in pollution control. Although piglet diets are more tightly regulated in terms of controlling N input, excessive protein levels in so-called reduced protein diets for finisher pigs and dry sows are common in the market. Hence, there is considerable potential to reduce N-input and ammonia emissions from Swiss pig production, which could be implemented at no or minimal extra cost.

Nutrient intakes from complementary foods consumed by young children (aged 12-23 months) from North Wollo, northern Ethiopia: the need for agro-ecologically adapted interventions.

To characterize current feeding practices and to evaluate the adequacy of energy and nutrient intakes of young children in subsistence farming rural households in North Wollo, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study examining sociodemographic status, anthropometry, breast-feeding and complementary feeding practices using two in-home non-consecutive 24 h recalls. Two rural villages in the highlands and lowlands of Gobalafto district, North Wollo. Seventy-six young children aged 12-23 months, thirty-nine from the lowlands and thirty-seven from the highlands. About 33% of the children, ~46% in the highlands and 24% in the lowlands (P=0.05), were stunted. Complementary diets were low in animal products, fruits and vegetables. Cereals and legumes were the major sources of energy, protein, Ca, Fe, Zn and vitamin A. Legumes with potentially toxic components (grass pea, broad beans) and low nutrient-dense beverages such as tea were frequently consumed. Intakes of energy, Ca, Zn, vitamin A and vitamin C from complementary foods were below WHO recommendations assuming average breast-milk intakes. In contrast, Fe and protein intakes and densities met WHO recommendations. Although vitamin C intakes and densities were higher (P<0.05) for the lowlands, they remained far below WHO recommendations. Interventions promoting the WHO guiding principles for complementary feeding practices and behaviours that take the agro-ecological contexts into account are needed here. Furthermore, specific recommendations should be formulated to discourage the consumption of grass pea, broad beans and low nutrient-dense beverages such as tea.

Concordance with the WHO guidelines for early child feeding through the first six months of life in a sample of infants of the Guatemalan highlands

BackgroundThe WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) through the first 6 mo of life. EBF is defined as having received only breast milk during the previous day. Predominant breast feeding (PBF) allows the infant to receive certain liquids such as water, juices and ritual fluids.ObjectiveTo evaluate EBF and PBF rates in a sample of infants from a low‐income, urban Guatemalan population using 3 different interview methods.MethodsMothers of 154 infants (77 boys) in their 6th mo of life, attending a public health center, were recruited and interviewed on a single occasion regarding previous day (as suggested by the WHO), current, and past (since birth) feeding practices.ResultsUsing the previous day recall, EBF was reported by 86 (56%) of the mothers. Estimated EBF rates were much lower when based on current feeding practice questions (20%) and even lower when based on feeding practices since birth (9%). Using the less stringent recommendation allowing certain liquids, we observed PBF rates of 58%, 49% and 31% based on previous day, current and past reported feeding practices, respectively.ConclusionThe WHO method overestimates the EBF rate compared to the recall since birth. Overall, adherence to the WHO guidelines for feeding in the first semester of infancy was much less than ideal and in need of strengthening.Funded by the Nestlé Foundation, Switzerland

Socio-Demographic Features and Breast Feeding Profile of Mothers Attending Teaching Hospital in Gujarat State, India

Objective: To relate the socio-demographic profile of mothers with their breast feeding practices. Design: Hospital based cross sectional study. Setting: Urban tertiary care teaching hospital. Methods: A pretested semi-structured questionnaire was used. The information was collected by using interview technique. Study was carried out from June 2005 to October 2005 in a tertiary care hospital. In the hospital 991 women availed the services during study period and 600 (60.5%) of them were covered in this study. These women were interviewed after the delivery in the hospital during postnatal period. Details of their socio-demographic features and breast feeding profile were collected. Ethical concern: No ethical issues were involved. Data analysis: The data were analysed with the help of EpiInfo software (version. 3.2). Proportions & frequencies were calculated by doing bivariate analysis. Results: A total of 600 women were covered of those women 309 (51.5%) were young <25 years, 345 (57.5%) mothers were literate and 537 (89.5%) mothers gave colostrum to their babies. Prelacteal feed was given by 205 (34.2%) of mothers in the present study. Conclusion: The observations of the study will help in understanding the current breast feeding practices of mothers attending hospital

An Assessment of Current Feeding Practices in Louisiana Dairy Farms

A survey of producers was conducted to determine feeding practices on Louisiana dairy farms. A 38.5% response rate among dairy farmers was obtained. Declared herd size averaged 108 Holstein milking cows producing 15,613 lbs/cow/year. Most producers relied on pastures as primary forage source for the cows. Pastures were supplemented with concentrates offered twice daily. Most farmers formulated rations and reported knowing dietary protein, but less than 20% of the respondents acknowledged dietary P content. Producers and company nutritionists should be targeted by Extension programs intended to inform about P feeding recommendations and environmental effects of excess P.

Current Infant Feeding Practices in Egor Local Government Area of EDO State

The provision of appropriate nutrition is of great importance during infancy and childhood in support of rapid growth and development inherent in these periods. Many initiatives have been started in the past decades and this study was carried out To assess what further progress may have been made in actualising optimal infant feeding practices in Benin City in the intervening decades, a community-based household survey was carried out. Infant feeding practices were evaluated using pre-tested questionnaires on 1068 mothers of infants aged less than 12 months. 546 (51.1%) infants were aged 0-5 months. The Ever Breastfed Rate of 99.5% was indicative of a high prevalence of breastfeeding in the community. The Time Suckling Rate of 35.4% was comparable to the national average of 32%. The Exclusive and Predominant Breastfeeding Rates of 40.7% and 30.4% respectively, have remained relatively stable over the past decade. The Bottle-feeding Rate was 28.9%. Significant determinants of optimal breastfeeding were high maternal education (X2 = 9.718; p = 0.045), high socio-economic status (X2 = 12.910; p = 0.012), increasing maternal age (X2 = 14.777; p = 0.022), higher parity (X2 = 15.212; p = 0.009), delivery in hospital (X2 = 15.079; p = 0.020) and infant age (X2 = 100.482; P = 0.0001). Breastfeeding practices in Benin City have not improved much from what obtained a decade ago. Greater emphasis on female education,socio-economic empowerment and improved funding of the Baby-friendly Hospital Initiative is advocated.

Infant Feeding Practices and Weight-for-Age at 12 Months: Results From the Infant Feeding Practices Study II

Background: Early childhood obesity is a growing public health concern. Current infant feeding practice guidelines call for 1) no bottle-to-bed, 2) ) minimal juice consumption, 3) exclusive breastfeeding up to 4-6 months with continued breastfeeding up to one year, and 4) introduction of solid foods no earlier than 4-6 months infant age. However, associations between these recommended practices and weight-for-age in late infancy remain to be identified. Study Question: To what extent are bottle-to-bed behavior, late infancy juice consumption intensity, late infancy breastfeeding intensity, and early introduction to solid foods associated with weight-for-age among one year old infants?

Long-term follow-up after weight management in obese dogs: The role of diet in preventing regain

Regain after weight loss is widely reported in humans, but there is little information on this phenomenon in dogs. The current study aim was to determine long-term success of a weight loss regime and those factors linked with regain. Thirty-three obese dogs, that had successfully lost weight, were included, all enrolled between December 2004 and May 2009. After weight loss, dogs were switched to a maintenance regime and follow-up weight checks were performed periodically. A review of cases that had completed their weight programme was held during the summer of 2010 and a follow-up check was subsequently conducted, where dogs were reweighed and information was collected on current feeding practices. Median duration of follow-up was 640 days (119-1828 days). Fourteen dogs (42%) maintained weight, 3 (9%) lost >5% additional weight, and 16 (48%) gained >5% weight. Dogs fed a purpose-formulated weight loss diet regained less weight than those switched onto a standard maintenance diet (P=0.0016). Energy intake at the time of follow-up was significantly higher in those dogs fed a standard maintenance diet, compared with those that had remained on a purpose-formulated weight loss diet (P=0.017). These results suggest that weight regain occurs in about half of dogs after successful weight loss. Long-term use of a purpose-formulated weight management diet can significantly limit regain in the follow-up period, likely by limiting food intake.

Age, breed, sex distribution and nutrition of a population of working farm dogs in New Zealand: Results of a cross-sectional study of members of the New Zealand Sheep Dog Trial Association

AIM: To establish baseline information about age, breed, sex distribution and feeding practices for a population of working farm dogs owned by members of the New Zealand Sheep Dog Trial Association (NZSDTA) throughout New Zealand. METHODS: Questionnaires were sent to members of the NZSDTA in August 2007, requesting information on the size and terrain of the farms where they worked, as well as the breed, weight, age and sex of each working dog they owned, feeding regime employed, diet fed, work levels, and general health of their dogs. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 542/676 (81%) of the eligible sample population, and provided information on 2,861 dogs, excluding those <1 year old. All of the dog owners surveyed worked on sheep and beef-cattle farms. The median farm size was 440 [Inter-quartile range (IQR) 132–1,200] ha and varied with region. The majority of farms were situated on either hill country (184/542; 34%) or a mixture of hilly and flat terrain (260/542; 48%), and had a median of six (IQR 5–8) working dogs per farm. The median age of dogs was 3.0 (IQR 2.0–6.0) years. Heading dogs were the most common type of working dog (1,510/2,861; 52.8%), followed by Huntaways (1,161/2,861; 40.6%). The gender distribution of all dogs was biased towards males (57%), but this decreased with age. There was a positive association between the number of dogs on a farm and perceived level of tiredness of dogs (p<0.001), but there were no differences in levels of tiredness between farms of different terrain. Most owners (526/542; 97%) fed their dogs once a day. The most common diet fed was a combination of dry food and homekill, which was fed by 328/542 (61%) owners during peak and 313/542 (58%) during off-peak periods of work. CONCLUSIONS and CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This study has established baseline information on the age, breed, gender and nutrition of a large population of working farm dogs in New Zealand. Current feeding practices employed by owners include offering a substantial amount of homekill to their animals. Homekill may be deficient or marginal in vitamins and minerals, therefore opportunities could exist to improve the diets and therefore the longevity and performance of these dogs.

Predicting mothers’ decisions to introduce complementary feeding at 6 months. An investigation using an extended theory of planned behaviour

In Australia and other developed countries there is poor adherence to guidelines recommending the introduction of complementary feeding to infants at 6 months of age. We aimed to investigate, via adopting a theory of planned behaviour framework and incorporating additional normative and demographic influences, mothers’ complementary feeding intentions and behaviour. Participants were 375 primiparas who completed an initial questionnaire (infant age 13 ± 3 weeks) that assessed the theory of planned behaviour constructs of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control, as well as group norm and additional maternal and infant variables of mothers’ age, education level, weight status perception, current maternal feeding practices, and infant birth weight. Approximately, 3 months after completion of the main questionnaire, mothers completed a follow-up questionnaire that assessed the age in months at which the infant was first introduced to solids. The theory of planned behaviour variables of attitude and subjective norm, along with group norm, predicted intentions, with intention, mothers’ age (older more likely), and weight status perception (overweight less likely) predicting behaviour. Overall, the results highlight the importance of attitudes, normative influences, and individual characteristics in complementary feeding decision-making which should be considered when designing interventions aimed at improving adherence to current maternal feeding guidelines.

Winter feeding - changing labour requirements and productivity

Current winter feeding practice using a daily grazing duration to ration feed is based on the sheep industry of the 1960s to the 1980s when per head performance was much lower than today. This study investigated the impact of changing from a 1-day grazing duration to a 4-day grazing duration during winter on subsequent productivity. Ewe condition score and liveweight, tailing percentages, and tailing and weaning weights of lambs, as well as the incidence of vaginal prolapse in ewes at lambing were recorded over several years on a total of seven farms. Spring pasture growth and botanical composition was measured on one farm. Results suggest 4-day shifting had little impact on vaginal prolapse but did result in more settled sheep, easier winter shifting regime, and less pasture damage, leading to improved pasture production in early spring (P

Feeding practices among children attending child welfare clinics in Ragama MOH area: a descriptive cross-sectional study

BackgroundFeeding during early childhood is important for normal physical and mental growth as well as for health in later life. Currently, Sri Lanka has adopted the WHO recommendation of exclusive breastfeeding for six months, followed by addition of complementary feeds thereafter, with continuation of breastfeeding up to or beyond two years. This study was conducted to evaluate the current feeding practices among Sri Lankan children during early childhood.MethodsThis study was a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted in the Ragama Medical Officer of Health (MOH) area. It was conducted between 10 August 2010 and 30 October 2010. Children between the ages of 24 and 60 months, attending child welfare clinics, were included in the study on consecutive basis. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect data regarding sociodemographic characteristics and feeding practices.ResultsThere were 208 boys and 202 girls in the study population. Of them, 255 (62.2%) were exclusively breastfed up to 6 months. Younger children had a statistically significant, higher rate of exclusive breastfeeding compared to older children. Three hundred and fifty one (85.6%) children had received infant formula, and it was started before the age of 6 months in 61 children, and in 212 before one year. Sugar was added to infant formula in 330 (80.4%) children, and out of them 144 had sugar added within first year of life. Complementary foods were started before 4 months in 29 (7%) children. Of the 410 children, 294 (71.7%) were breastfed beyond 2 years and 41.6% of them were breastfed at regular intervals throughout the day. Three hundred and thirty eight (82.6%) children were receiving overnight feeding of either breast milk or infant formula even after 2 years.ConclusionsThough a high rate of exclusive breastfeeding was observed in this study population, there are many other issues related to feeding during the early years of life that need immediate intervention. Too early introduction of complementary food, using infant formula without an indication, adding sugar to infant formula, too frequent breastfeeding and overnight feeding of older children are among them.

Suitability of day-old chicks as food for captive snakes

Snakes are increasingly kept by private hobbyists and their numbers in the pet trade are increasing. Since suitable diets are essential for the health, welfare and maintenance of captive animals, objective research is required to improve and evaluate current feeding practices. Unfortunately, the husbandry of reptiles is frequently led by tradition, resulting in methods which are not evidence based. One such occurrence is the widespread belief that day-old chicks (DOCs) are unsuitable as food for captive snakes. Since this assumption has not been systematically assessed, herein I review the evidence in order to provide a more informed basis from which to evaluate the suitability of chicks in relation to rodent prey. Commonly expressed nutritional, ecological and husbandry-related concerns are examined using compilations of previously published data, new data, prior experience and nutrient compositions obtained from the Zootrition™ database. Day-old chicks were compared with two rodent species (mice and rats) since these are the most commonly used alternative prey item. Rodents were clearly the better option only in their 'naturalness', in that mammalian prey species are more frequently represented in natural diets than birds. I conclude that DOCs are a suitable prey item for snakes in captive collections since the available data provide no firm evidence for their avoidance, contrary to popular belief. Many gaps in our knowledge remain that would assist further discussion of this issue, and these are highlighted within. It is pertinent that although these data indicate that DOCs are a viable alternative to rodent prey for captive snakes, they do not necessarily indicate its superiority. In most instances, rodents and DOCs may be regarded as practically equivalent and interchangeable. It is therefore the individual keeper's preference as to which to use, informed in particular circumstances by the information presented herein.