Current EU Regulations Research Articles

Study of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in Infant Formulas and Baby Bottles: Data from the European LIFE-MILCH PROJECT.

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) is inevitable, and growing scientific evidence indicates that even very low doses can negatively impact human health, particularly during pregnancy and the neonatal period. As part of the European project LIFE18 ENV/IT/00460, this study aims to identify the presence of EDCs in 20 infant formulas (both powdered and liquid) and the release from baby bottles and teats. Particularly, sensitization of young people and future parents towards the potential harmful effects of EDCs could significantly help to reduce exposure. Seven different UPLC-MS/MS methodologies and one ICP-AES were set up to quantify already assessed and suspected EDCs among 85 different chemicals (bisphenols, parabens, PAHs, phthalates, pesticides, herbicides and their main metabolites, PFAS, and metals). Results showed that in 2 out of 14 baby bottles, only anthracene and phenanthrene of the group of PAHs were released (10.68-10.81 ng/mL). Phthalates such as mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP) were found in 9 of 14 samples (0.054-0.140 ng/mL), while mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MeOHP) appeared in 2 samples (0.870-0.930 ng/mL). In accordance with current EU regulations, other chemicals were not detected in baby bottles and teats. However, bisphenols, parabens, PAHs, phthalates, PFAS, and metals were detected in infant formula, emphasizing the need for continued monitoring and public health interventions.

The Bacharach Method: A Low-Cost Tool for Small-Scale Combustion Units’ Flue Gas Quality Control

Although current EU regulations, such as EU Directive 2015/1189 on the eco-design of solid fuel boilers and Directive 2015/1188, in accordance with the Machinery Directive 2006/42/EC, require manufacturers to meet specific emission requirements for CE marking, the routine and regular onsite testing of household heating appliances is still not mandatory in many EU countries. This research endeavour addressed this gap by evaluating the effectiveness of the Bacharach method as a rapid and cost-effective tool for assessing flue gas quality, particularly in terms of particulate matter mass concentration. This study also compared the results of the Bacharach method with those obtained from two commercially available portable analysers. The research outcomes demonstrate that the Bacharach method, in combination with an innovative evaluation approach, offers a viable solution, enabling the swift and economical assessment of flue gas quality with the primary objective of determining the boiler class according to the limits specified by standard EN 303-5 under operating conditions. The modified Bacharach method for measuring TSP in solid fuel-fired boilers provides qualitatively similar results to the commercially used SM500 and STM225 instruments. The modified Bacharach methodology was primarily developed for comparison to the boiler class 3 limit (i.e., 125 and 150 mg/m3). The study revealed that the modified Bacharach method, when applied to biomass-based boilers, exhibited higher accuracies in the case of classification into classes 3 and 4, whereas fossil fuel-based boilers demonstrated higher accuracy in the case of class 5 limits.

Вимоги до клінічного оцінювання медичних виробів у законодавстві Європейського Союзу та України

ABSTRACT. Within the framework of the association agreement between Ukraine, on the one hand, and the European Union, the European Atomic Energy Community and their member states, on the other hand, Ukraine has committed itself to gradually achieve compliance with EU technical regulations and systems of Standardization, Metrology, accreditation, conformity assessment work and market surveillance of the EU and has committed itself to adhere to the principles and practices set out in current EU decisions and regulations. Aim. To carry out a comparative analysis of approaches to the technical regulation of medical devices and their clinical evaluation. Materials and methods. An analysis of EU and Ukrainian regulatory acts in the field of technical regulation of medical devices and their clinical evaluation was carried out. Results. The provisions of the EU regulation governing the issue of clinical evaluation of medical devices are considered. Attention is focused on the approaches and requirements of the EU in the field of regulation of medical devices regarding their clinical evaluation, as well as on regulatory and legal aspects of the regulation of clinical evaluation of medical devices in Ukraine. The authors made proposals for improving the legal regulation of clinical evaluation of medical devices in Ukraine in accordance with EU requirements, in particular, the requirements for the clinical evaluation plan and the report on its results. Conclusions. The regulatory framework for conducting clinical evaluation of medical devices needs to be improved. When developing and implementing it, it is necessary to take into account the following aspects: new definitions of terms, improvement of the procedure for conducting clinical evaluation of medical devices, mandatory and requirements for post-monitoring clinical observation and postmonitoring supervision. Keywords: medical devices, clinical assessment, clinical data, post-monitoring clinical observation, post-monitoring supervision.

Theoretical design of blockchain-based traceability for organic egg supply chains according to regulation (EU) 2018/848.

The use of blockchain technology to establish food traceability chains has the potential to provide transparent information of food stuffs along the entire supply chain and also aid in the documentation or even execution of official food control processes. Particularly in instances where analytical methodologies cannot provide definitive data for food control questions under study, the certificate-based approach of a traceability chain may offer a way of regulatory control for state authorities. Given the rising importance of organic produce and the high share of eggs among the organic produce in the European Union as well as the new EU regulation on organic products and labelling that came into force in 2022, we analyze here how the control of egg production type and marketing standards can be represented within a blockchain-based traceability chain such as to maximize the traceability in compliance with the current relevant EU regulations. Intended for the use by the official food control authorities, a traceability chain for organically produced eggs in the EU would need to be implemented as a permissioned blockchain, since only select entities are allowed to participate. By combining a proof of authority consensus mechanism with issuance of soulbound tokens, we effectively suggest a 'proof of soulbound authority' consensus process. The soulbound tokens are issued throughout the administrative chain from the European Commission down to the official food control authorities in individual member states that ultimately certify the control bodies for organic produce. Despite the general limitation of not providing unambiguous proof of the organic status of individual products, the concept discussed here offers advantages with respect to allocation of authority at EU level and therefore might have positive effects beyond the traceability chain.

What to do With Cross-Border Environmental Pollution: Legislative Aspects

Abstract – Environmental torts and possibility of trans-border dispute settlement thereof has gained significant prominence in the recent years. Cases such as Urgenda foundation v the State of the Netherlends, Milieudefensie et al. v. Royal Dutch Shell plc., ClientEarth v. Enea, Neubauer et al. v. Germany demonstrate that environmental tort cases can be brought by stakeholders globally rather than relying on involvement of a relevant national responsible authority. EU climate policy of decreasing GHG emissions and the ambitious target of reaching climate neutrality by 2050 has resulted in a rapid development of environmental law. Thus, environmental regulation is becoming increasingly complex and possible breaches may cause serious legal consequences affecting everyone not just selected individuals or states. These developments could possibly lead to a necessity of a forum or rules where any natural person or an NGO could bring a claim against a state or multinational corporation which engages in illegal activities causing harm the environment on a global scale. Using litigation as a tool to empower society to stand against environmental wrongdoers may serve as a deterring factor to maintain order when it comes to environmental regulation. While such reasoning may seem farfetched and extreme, nevertheless it still raises a question of current regulation on determination of jurisdiction and the applicable law and whether it would be possible to benefit from developing these rules. By engaging in a systematic literature analysis identifying the relevant terms, the research shall explore the basic principles of private international law in relation to assigning jurisdiction and determining applicable law in claims concerning environmental torts. The research shall develop a methodology with the aim of covering and identifying a wider range of problems related to the determination of jurisdiction and application of law in cross-border environmental tort claims. Some of the main issues concern the determination of defendants in cases involving multinational corporations, multi-claimant cases, and the compensation of indirect damages. An exploration of material aspects in the developments of the current EU regulation and guidelines shall be analysed in conjunction with the aforementioned notion. The result of the study not only will reflect the specifics of the application of the Brussels Ibis Regulation and Rome II regulation in cross-border environmental torts, but also how the EU environmental regulation could potentially promote corporate responsibility and environmental protection. Thus, developing research on interaction between private international law and environmental law. Keywords - environmental tort, SEG emissions, jurisdiction, applicable law, cross-border pollution

A Case Study of Ergonomic Risk Assessment in Slovakia with Respect to EU Standard.

Attention on work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) involves statistical surveys showing an increasing trend in the incidence of WMSDs. Technological development has led to new tools and methods for the assessment of physical load at work. These methods are mostly based on the direct sensing of appropriate parameters, which allows more precise quantification. The aim of this paper is to compare several commonly used methods in Slovakia for the assessment of ergonomic risk reflecting current EU and Slovak legislative regulations. A Captiv wireless sensory system was used at a car headlight quality control assembly workplace for sensing, data acquisition and data processing. During the evaluation of postures and movements at work, we discovered differences in the applicable standards: Decree 542/2007 Coll. (Slovak Legislation), the STN EN 1005-4+A1, and the French standards default in the Captiv system. Standards define the thresholds for hazardous postures with significant differences in several evaluated body segments, which affects the final evaluation of the measurements. Our experience from applying improved risk assessment methodology may have an impact on Slovak industrial workplaces. It was confirmed that there is a need to create uniform standards for the ergonomic risk assessment of body posture, including a detailed description of the threshold values for individual body segments.

African swine fever: implications for the Italian pork trade.

In early 2022, the confirmed presence of African swine fever (ASF) circulating in wild boars in mainland Italy and subsequently found in domestic pigs led to several changes regarding the export of pork and pork products to countries outside the European Union (non-EU). The sector suffered the complete and immediate closure of the markets of some countries, often without the measure being communicated in the forms stipulated by international agreements. Indeed, compliance with the current EU regulations does not guarantee the possibility of exporting to non-EU countries. Knowledge of the animal health status requirements of the country (Italy in this case) is essential for food business operators (FBOs) wishing to enter markets outside the EU according to the 'Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures'. In cases where a sanitary protocol and a model of an official certificate with the importing country exist, the market is officially accessible according to the agreed sanitary requirements. Where no agreement exists, requirements are detailed in the 'import permit' issued to individual FBOs or may be known by directly accessing national regulations through the client/importer. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to briefly outline the conditions imposed by the main non-EU countries for pork products, especially in light of the new epidemiological situation created by the spread of the ASF into a country previously free of the disease.

The perks of being an organic chicken – animal welfare science on the key features of organic poultry production

Modern poultry production entails a number of important animal welfare issues. However, welfare is often considered to be better in organic than in non-organic production, largely due to the focus on naturalness within the former which has been embedded within the EU regulations on organic production. The aim of this paper was to review the relevant scientific literature to assess (i) how animal welfare science relates to the key features of organic poultry production which originally stem from organic visions and ideological reasons, and (ii) whether there is scientific evidence to show that these key features, as stipulated in current EU regulations, contribute to higher welfare in organic poultry production. We identified seven key features that are intended to improve poultry welfare in organic production: appropriate breeds, no mutilations, outdoor access, natural light, perch space and raised sitting levels, provision of roughage, and lower stocking densities. In general, the animal welfare science available supports the potential for higher animal welfare in organic poultry production, based on the requirements as laid down in the current EU regulations. However, there is still room for improvement, and some aspects that may further improve animal welfare in organic poultry production include the use of alternative laying hen hybrids with the potential for better welfare, even more slow-growing broilers, appropriate management of the free-range areas in practice to ensure that they are used by the birds, additional raised sitting level space allowance for broilers, and the use of “dark brooders” for chicks.

Postupak određivanja energetske karakteristike zgrade prema ISO 52016-1

With the idea of harmonizing with current EU regulation regarding methodology used for energy certification of buildings, and with aim of achieving energy savings in the building sector, the dynamic hourly calculation methodology for determining energy needs of the building for heating and cooling was presented and analyzed. The presented method is based on the new, currently valid standard SRPS EN ISO 52016-1. Unlike the previous so-called three-node method, determined by the now extracted standard SRPS EN ISO 13790, this method does not group layers of the construction envelope, but treats separately each layer of each element of the construction envelope. Accordingly, the new calculation method is based on forming energy balance equations not only for the internal and external boundary surface, but also for each layer of the building element, and their coupled solution for boundary conditions that change on an hourly basis. Due to complexity of this methodology, which in addition to the hourly temperatures of the external air, hourly values of solar irradiance, radiation to the sky, but also the own radiation of all solid surfaces, also takes into account dynamic behavior of all elements of the building's thermal envelope (resistance to heat conduction and heat accumulation of each layer of the envelope), a special software was developed, verification of which, as well as verification of methodology, was performed on the example of determining energy needs of a model object for heating and cooling.

Rai, public service media, and sport

The article examines the current challenges and opportunities facing the Italian public broadcaster Rai in relation to global sporting events in the digital scenario. Adopting a sys- temic perspective, the study explores the tensions among the increasing commercialisation/ political disenchantment of major sporting events, and the public remits of Rai to secure them within the current EU regulation on sport rights and in terms of public service media. An historical overview of Rai’s linkage with sports is provided to contextualise the discussion of the online TV service RaiPlay and its current strategy for both on-demand sports content and the live coverage of recent global sporting events, such as Tokyo 2020 and Qatar 2022. The article concludes by emphasising the potential for Rai to enable new forms of engage- ment, while also urging a careful consideration of the traditional remits and values of public service in the face of evolving media landscapes.

Preserving data privacy in machine learning systems

The wide adoption of Machine Learning to solve a large set of real-life problems came with the need to collect and process large volumes of data, some of which are considered personal and sensitive, raising serious concerns about data protection. Privacy-enhancing technologies (PETs) are often indicated as a solution to protect personal data and to achieve a general trustworthiness as required by current EU regulations on data protection and AI. However, an off-the-shelf application of PETs is insufficient to ensure a high-quality of data protection, which one needs to understand. This work systematically discusses the risks against data protection in modern Machine Learning systems taking the original perspective of the data owners, who are those who hold the various data sets, data models, or both, throughout the machine learning life cycle and considering the different Machine Learning architectures. It argues that the origin of the threats, the risks against the data, and the level of protection offered by PETs depend on the data processing phase, the role of the parties involved, and the architecture where the machine learning systems are deployed. By offering a framework in which to discuss privacy and confidentiality risks for data owners and by identifying and assessing privacy-preserving countermeasures for machine learning, this work could facilitate the discussion about compliance with EU regulations and directives.We discuss current challenges and research questions that are still unsolved in the field. In this respect, this paper provides researchers and developers working on machine learning with a comprehensive body of knowledge to let them advance in the science of data protection in machine learning field as well as in closely related fields such as Artificial Intelligence.

Flexible green hydrogen: The effect of relaxing simultaneity requirements on project design, economics, and power sector emissions

In many net-zero energy scenarios, electrolytic hydrogen is a key component to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors and to provide flexibility to the power sector. In current energy systems that are not yet fully decarbonized, however, the hydrogen ramp-up raises the concern of increasing power sector emissions. To avoid such additional emissions, recent EU regulation defines requirements for electrolytic hydrogen to qualify as green along three dimensions: the additionality, the proximity, and the simultaneity of renewable electricity generation. Focusing on the temporal dimension, this article investigates the effects of a strict hourly simultaneity requirement, full temporal flexibility, as well as simultaneity exemptions in the current EU regulation. We develop a model of a renewables-hydrogen project, consisting of individual wind turbines, solar panels, hydrogen electrolysis, and hydrogen storage. As a novelty, the model optimizes not only dispatch but also investment decisions, and we expose it to different regulatory conditions. We show that a flexible definition of green hydrogen does not necessarily increase power sector emissions. By contrast, requiring hourly simultaneity implies that rational investors build much larger wind turbines, hydrogen electrolyzers, and hydrogen storage than needed—meaning additional costs and embedded carbon, underutilized assets, and a potential slow-down of green hydrogen deployment. These adverse effects can only partially be mitigated by including solar panels and by the EU simultaneity exceptions. We argue that current energy transition trends further lower the risk of increasing power sector emissions under a flexible definition of green hydrogen and recommend this as the way forward for a sustainable hydrogen policy.

Burden of lung cancer and predicted costs of occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium in the EU – The impact of different occupational exposure limits

BackgroundExposure to hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] occurs widely in occupational settings across the EU and is associated with lung cancer. In 2025, the occupational exposure limit is set to change to 5 μg/m3. Current exposure limits are higher, with 10 μg/m3 as a general limit and 25 μg/m3 for the welding industry. We aimed to assess the current burden of lung cancer caused by occupational exposure to Cr(VI) and to evaluate the impact of the recently established EU regulation by analysing different occupational exposure limits. MethodsData were extracted from the literature, the Global Burden of Disease 2019) study, and Eurostat. We estimated the cases of cancer attributable to workplace exposure to Cr(VI) by combining exposure-effect relationships with exposure data, and calculated related DALYs and health costs in scenarios with different occupational exposure limits. ResultsWith current EU regulations, 253 cases (95%UI 250.96–255.71) of lung cancer were estimated to be caused by Cr(VI) in 2019, resulting in 4684 DALYs (95%UI 4683.57–4704.08). In case the welding industry adopted 10 μg/m3, a decrease of 43 cases and 797 DALYs from current values is expected. The predicted application of a 5 μg/m3 limit would cause a decrease of 148 cases and 2746 DALYs. Current costs are estimated to amount to 12.47 million euros/year (95%UI 10.19–453.82), corresponding to 39.97 million euros (95%UI 22.75–70.10) when considering costs per DALY. The limits implemented in 2025 would lead to a decrease of 23.35 million euros when considering DALYs, with benefits of introducing a limit value occurring after many decades. Adopting a 1 μg/m3 limit would lower costs to 1.04 million euros (95%UI 0.85–37.67) and to 3.33 million euros for DALYs (95%UI 1.89–5.84). DiscussionAssessing different scenarios with different Cr(VI) occupational exposure limits allowed to understand the impact of EU regulatory actions. These findings make a strong case for adapting even stricter exposure limits to protect workers’ health and avoid associated costs.

Assessment of chitosan/pectin-rich vegetable waste composites for the active packaging of dry foods

In line with the growing demand for green alternatives to conventional petroleum-derived plastic packaging, fully bio-based and biodegradable biocomposites were developed for this work, for the purpose of packaging dry foods, following the principles of circular economy. Solutions of plasticized chitosan (pCS) were blended with varying amounts of hydrolyzed orange peel (hOP) waste to produce films by casting. The hydrolytic pretreatment of orange peels enabled the creation of biocomposites containing up to 80 wt% hOP, while the formulation with 70 wt% hOP had the best general performance. Chemical characterization of the developed films revealed that chitosan molecules interact electrostatically with pectin molecules in hOP. The strong interaction between chitosan and pectin molecules results in improved mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties of the composite materials compared to their individual components. In addition, the biocomposites exhibit improved water resistance due to their reduced water solubility compared to chitosan and hOP films. The migration of the films’ components in the food simulant Tenax was evaluated, and the results revealed low values, compliant with the current EU regulation. However, due to the electrostatic interactions, the films lost the antimicrobial activity of the individual components, chitosan and hOP, against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria, a property that could turn the developed films into active packaging. Finally, the optical and antioxidant properties and the biodegradability in soil of the developed films were also assayed, showing high transparency, antioxidant capacity, and fast biodegradability, reaching 62.9% weight loss after 26 days of the experiment.

Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Aerodynamic Ventilation Drag of Heavy-Duty Vehicle Wheels

Due to current EU regulations, constant-speed testing on test tracks is used for aerodynamic certification of heavy-duty vehicles (HDV). However, the aerodynamic development of HDVs is performed using wind tunnels and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Both techniques commonly neglect the rotational aerodynamic losses of the wheels—the so-called ventilation drag—that are present when driving on the road. This is due to the fact that there is no full-scale wind tunnel for this type of vehicle with a suitable belt system for the simulation of the wheel rotation. Furthermore, the ventilation drag of HDV wheels has been neglected in CFD due to their almost completely closed rim design. These constraints lead to an underprediction of the aerodynamic forces in comparison to the results under on-road conditions when performing constant-speed tests. In order to investigate the ventilation drag of HDV wheels, measurements were carried out on a 1:4.5 scale generic tractor-trailer model in the Model Scale Wind Tunnel of the University of Stuttgart. The measured aerodynamic forces as well as the measured flow field data provide the basis for the definition and validation of a procedure for analyzing the ventilation drag in CFD. Accordingly, the ventilation drag of a full scale HDV was investigated in CFD. The results show that the tire treading and rim geometry have a significant influence on ventilation drag that contributes to the total aerodynamic drag of the HDV. The present work shows that the ventilation drag has a relevant impact on the total aerodynamic drag of HDVs and should therefore not be neglected. The presented CFD approach thus allows to assess the aerodynamic drag under real on-road conditions in an early stage of the vehicle development.

Antibiotics and antibiotic resitant bacteria: from hotspots into the aquatic environment

There is a vast literature on the occurrence of antibiotics and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) of human or animal origin in natural aquatic ecosystems as result of anthropogenic activitie. Although hotspots for AR discharge in the environment were identified, that include: sewage and wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), industrial drug manufacurers, food and animal production, agriculture and aquaculture, and clinical settings such as hospitals, efficient current regulations to mitigate this pollution are lacking. The aim of this review is to provide insights regarding the spread of antibiotics and ARB from hotspots into aquatic environment and also an overview of current EU and UN regulations for combating AR pollution of our natural ecosystems.

FOOD CONTAMINATION – CHARACTERISTICS AND LEGAL REGULATIONS. PART I – PLANT TOXINS

Food health safety is a set of conditions that must be met and actions that must be taken at all stages of production of or trade in food in order to ensure human health and life.. Food safety is guaranteed by appropriately shaped food law, and the food safety policy pursued by the European Union institutions covers all stages of the food chain, from production to consumption, and guarantees the clarity of infor mation on the origin and composition of food and its labelling. However, not all hazards can be completely eliminated from food, which is why their residues are strictly regulated by law. The key solution in this area was Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting the maximum levels of certain contaminants in foodstuffs. This legal act, which had been supplemented and amended many times, was replaced by Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on the maximum levels of certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006. The aim of the work was to characterize plant toxins as contaminants in food, the highest permissible levels of which were introduced by amendments to Regulation EC 1881/2006 and included in the current EU Regulation 915/2023. Results and conclusions: Numerous amendments to Regulation 1881/2006, and consequently Regula tion 2023/915, introduced the highest permissible levels for the following plant toxins: erucic acid, tropane and pyrrolizidine alkaloids and opium alkaloids, hydrogen cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides, and delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol equivalents. Due to the potential threat of these substances, their highest residues in individual foodstuffs must be regulated and monitored as part of official food control activities, while when obtaining raw materials that may contain this type of substances, it is necessary to follow appropri ate recommendations and good practices.

The liberalisation of high-speed rail services in Spain: Ticket price in the Madrid–Barcelona corridor

Current EU regulations and initiatives aim to promote a series of structural changes within the rail sector to improve its efficiency and environmental sustainability. Thus, a liberalisation process has been implemented through the so-called "railway packages". In the case of Spain, in 2021 the Spanish state-owned railway infrastructure manager (ADIF) culminated a long and complex process, initiated in 2016, to replace the existing public monopoly with free market models. As a result, three different companies have signed a ten-year agreement on the provision of high-speed services on the Madrid-Barcelona route, Madrid-East and Madrid-South.By facilitating the entry of new competitors, a reduction of transport costs is expected, which will in turn reduce the charges paid by operating companies. This will benefit rail passengers. In fact, the Spanish high-speed rail network presents, in general terms, excess capacity and low levels of congestion, which makes it easier for new operators to access the infrastructure. Therefore, new rail services will increase by 65% the network's capacity, compared to pre-liberalisation scenario.Given the new highly competitive scenario, the prices and types of tickets are much more complex as they are highly influenced by numerous factors, including internal factors, external factors, competition among rail operators and strategic customers. However, an appropriate ticket-pricing strategy can not only attract more passengers but also improve revenue. Therefore, the main goal of this paper is to analyse the pricing strategy for High Speed Rail (HSR) services in the Madrid-Barcelona corridor, considering the competition among different rail operators.

Digitalization of the banking sector in Hungary

During the pandemic period, considerable attention was paid to the online digital financial services. Tangible services provide tangible benefits to both the national economy and citizens. Easily accessible and popular options contribute to reducing the use of cash, expanding e-commerce and administration, and raising financial awareness, as well as creating a sustainable financial system. The widespread use of digital services ensures connection to the global world, more effective use of opportunities, and thus success either as an individual, as a company, or as a government actor. The emergence of FinTech applications has also been helped by the fact that while the operation of financial institutions is strictly regulated and controlled by the authorities, the operation of technology companies in this field is tied to far fewer mandatory regulations. It is important to note that there are still many issues to be resolved, one of which is the issue of equal regulation of FinTech companies and traditional banks. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the current state of digital banking in Hungary in the field of residential services and highlight the paths for further development. The main statements of the paper are the following: Overall, the level of digitization of the Hungarian banking system can be considered medium. In connection with the COVID-19 epidemic, the digitization of customer relations and products has come to the fore in the sector. Among the loan products, the overdraft facility for individuals and the degree of digitization of personal loans are the highest. At the corporate level, online loan applications are even less resolved, largely due to the evaluation and assessment of complex collateral requirements and the low prevalence of digital solutions for contracting and signing. This article proposes more sophisticated regulations, since the regulatory issues in digital financial innovation pose challenges for regulators. The main task should be to create the conditions for the competitiveness and safe operation of the financial intermediation system in the digital age, so the digital interfaces and communication platforms should be standardized. Regarding to the current EU regulation, the security elements of the digital payment system should be strengthened.

Assessment of health risk induced by heavy metal contents in drinking water

Abstract Investigation of the quality of drinking water was carried out aiming to evaluate health risks and toxicity arising from the content of heavy metals. Samples were analysed for the content of Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, Fe, Zn, Al, and Mn. Water quality and health risk assessment were evaluated by comparing the obtained data with current National, EU, and WHO regulations as well as by using the hazard quotient and cancer risk (HQ and CR). Results showed that Al (in one sample) and Ni (in five samples) exceeded the maximum allowed limits. Based on the metal pollution index, MPI, it was concluded that none of the samples exhibited ‘very good quality’ (MPI > 0.3), whereas the overall quality of Glina bottled water was classified as toxic to humans and Trebeshina as moderately toxic. Selected samples exhibited no evident health risk to humans (HQ < 1). Among the toxic metals analysed, Ni, Cd, and Cr exhibited higher values of cancer risk index (CR > 10−4), whereas Pb exhibited the lowest value. Bottled water such as Qafeshtama, Lajthiza, Tepelena, Dukat, Spring, Living, and Aqua Pana as well as tap water collected in the area of Student's City in Tirana can be considered safe for human consumption.