Current Conservation Strategies Research Articles

A Phylogenetic Approach to Conserving Amazonian Biodiversity

Amazonia is a highly threatened rainforest that encompasses a major proportion of Earth's biological diversity. Our main goal was to establish conservation priorities for Amazonia's areas of endemism on the basis of measures of evolutionary distinctiveness. We considered two previously identified sets of areas of endemism. The first set consisted of eight large areas used traditionally in biogeographical studies: Belém, Tapajós, Xingu, Guiana, Rondônia, Imeri, Inambari, and Napo. The second set consisted of 16 smaller areas that were subdivisions of the larger areas. We assembled a data set of 50 phylogenies that represented 16 orders and 1715 distributional records. We identified priority conservation areas for the areas of endemism according to node-based metrics of evolutionary distinctiveness. We contrasted these results with priority areas identified on the basis of raw species richness and species endemicity. For the larger areas, we identified Guiana and Inambari as the first- and second-most important areas for conservation. The remaining areas in this first group scored half (e.g., Napo) or less than Guiana and Inambari on all indices. For the smaller areas, a subdivision of Guiana (i.e., Guyana and the Brazilian states of Roraima and Amazonas) was at the top of the ranking and was followed by a subdivision of Inambari (i.e., northwestern portion of Amazonas) and then another subdivision of Guiana (i.e., Suriname, French Guiana, and the Brazilian state of Amapá). The distinctiveness-based rankings of the priority of areas correlated directly with those derived from species richness and species endemicity. Current conservation strategies in Amazonia, although they rely on many other criteria apart from phylogeny, are focusing on the most important areas for conservation we identified here.

It's not too Late for the Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja): High Levels Of Genetic Diversity and Differentiation Can Fuel Conservation Programs

BackgroundThe harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) is the largest Neotropical bird of prey and is threatened by human persecution and habitat loss and fragmentation. Current conservation strategies include local education, captive rearing and reintroduction, and protection or creation of trans-national habitat blocks and corridors. Baseline genetic data prior to reintroduction of captive-bred stock is essential for guiding such efforts but has not been gathered previously.Methodology/FindingsWe assessed levels of genetic diversity, population structure and demographic history for harpy eagles using samples collected throughout a large portion of their geographic distribution in Central America (n = 32) and South America (n = 31). Based on 417 bp of mitochondrial control region sequence data, relatively high levels of haplotype and nucleotide diversity were estimated for both Central and South America, although haplotype diversity was significantly higher for South America. Historical restriction of gene flow across the Andes (i.e. between our Central and South American subgroups) is supported by coalescent analyses, the haplotype network and significant F ST values, however reciprocally monophyletic lineages do not correspond to geographical locations in maximum likelihood analyses. A sudden population expansion for South America is indicated by a mismatch distribution analysis, and further supported by significant (p<0.05) negative values of Fu and Li's DF and F, and Fu's F S. This expansion, estimated at approximately 60 000 years BP (99 000–36 000 years BP 95% CI), encompasses a transition from a warm and dry time period prior to 50 000 years BP to an interval of maximum precipitation (50 000–36 000 years BP). Notably, this time period precedes the climatic and habitat changes associated with the last glacial maximum. In contrast, a multimodal distribution of haplotypes was observed for Central America suggesting either population equilibrium or a recent decline.SignificanceHigh levels of mitochondrial genetic diversity in combination with genetic differentiation among subgroups within regions and between regions highlight the importance of local population conservation in order to preserve maximal levels of genetic diversity in this species. Evidence of historically restricted female-mediated gene flow is an important consideration for captive-breeding programs.

Ecological and economic analysis of poaching of the greater one‐horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Nepal

Nepal's greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) faces serious threats from poaching. Poaching of these rhinos is a complex problem, influenced by such diverse factors as the price of rhino horn on the international market, local socioeconomic factors, and the population dynamics of the species. Few studies have attempted to address this complexity. In this study, we model the poaching and population dynamics of the one-horned rhinoceros within an integrated framework of ecological, socioeconomic, political, and legal dimensions. The poaching model for rhinos in Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP) in Nepal is combined with the population model for the species within a simulation framework and explored under various alternative policy scenarios with differing external socioeconomic and political conditions as well as internal policy response. We predict that, under the current (2003-2005) rhino conservation strategy, poaching would continue to be a major threat to the rhino population in RCNP. Furthermore, the internal policy response must begin to consider external factors such as socioeconomic conditions within the park buffer zone to be more effective in the long run. Finally, we find that, for long-run control, antipoaching policies should be directed at increasing the opportunity costs of poaching by creating better alternative economic opportunities, and at antipoaching enforcement.

Throughflow as a determining factor for habitat contiguity in a near-natural fen

Knowledge of the hydrological mechanisms that underlie stable plant communities within natural fens is essential for the improvement of current fen restoration and conservation strategies. In this study, steady-state groundwater modelling was performed to quantify the impact of throughflow mechanisms on the presence of exfiltrated, alkaline groundwater across a near-natural fen in the Biebrza River catchment (Poland). Alkaline groundwater is considered essential for the existence of low-productive fen plants. The results indicate that throughflow redistributes exfiltrated groundwater, mixed with locally infiltrated precipitation, in various concentrations across the fen. The throughflow model provides an explanation for the major patterns in the plant alliances that have a preference for minerotrophic or ombrotrophic habitat conditions. These patterns could not be reproduced with groundwater models that did not account for the existence of throughflow on a regional scale. We conclude that throughflow (1) enables a spatially contiguous supply of exfiltrated groundwater across fens, and thereby (2) facilitates abiotic conditions suitable for fen plants outside the zones that are directly supplied by exfiltrated groundwater. These new insights into landscape hydrological mechanisms that drive abiotic conditions within natural fens necessitate the reprioritisation of current hydrological fen restoration strategies. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Preserving pathogens for wildlife conservation: a case for action on amphibian declines

Infectious disease is an important driver in biological systems but its importance in conservation has historically been underestimated. Recently, however, researchers have increasingly recognized the impact of diseases on wildlife populations and have grappled with disease-related conservation challenges. For example, the phenomenon of worldwide amphibian declines caused by the fungal disease chytridiomycosis has contributed to the creation of a global Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. The sense of urgency in the protection of amphibians and mitigation of the effects of chytridiomycosis is well-warranted but determining the best way to respond to chytridiomycosis is challenging. Current conservation strategies focus on the preservation of the amphibian hosts, their habitats and their genetic materials. However, we suggest that to confront disease threats fully, particularly in the case of amphibian declines, insight into host–pathogen coevolution may be critical and we must therefore also preserve the pathogen for basic disease research. Here we outline priority targets for virulence research and urge researchers and managers to isolate and archive the pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to ensure viable long-term amphibian conservation.

Music and Hearing Protection: A Call to Action

AbstractMillions of people are exposed to loud music, either as musicians or as recreational consumers of music. Audiologists are in the best position to address hearing conservation problems for musicians and music listeners. However, the issue of music-induced hearing loss (MIHL) has unique challenges. Specifically, estimates of the size of the populations have likely underestimated the number of musicians at risk for MIHL. In addition, performance levels for musicians have been measured to be as loud as 109 dBA, and both professional and recreational listening devices can deliver sounds as loud as 130 dBA. However, compliance with conservation recommendations remains poor for a variety of reasons, despite increased awareness through educational campaigns. Moreover, methods to mediate exposure have had limited successes for both groups. The purpose of this paper is to assess the scope of the problem and the successes of current conservation strategies with the aim of inspiring renewed interest and solutions to the problems helping musicians and consumers protect their hearing.

Experimental evidence that human impacts drive fire ant invasions and ecological change

Biological invasions are often closely associated with human impacts and it is difficult to determine whether either or both are responsible for the negative impacts on native communities. Here, we show that human activity, not biological invasion, is the primary driver of negative effects on native communities and of the process of invasion itself. In a large-scale experiment, we combined additions of the exotic fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, with 2 disturbance treatments, mowing and plowing, in a fully crossed factorial design. Results indicate that plowing, in the absence of fire ants, greatly diminished total native ant abundance and diversity, whereas fire ants, even in the absence of disturbance, diminished some, but not all, native ant abundance and diversity. Transplanted fire ant colonies were favored by disturbance. In the absence of disturbance and on their own, fire ants do not invade the forest habitats of native ants. Our results demonstrate that fire ants are "passengers" rather than "drivers" of ecological change. We propose that fire ants may be representative of other invasive species that would be better described as disturbance specialists. Current pest management and conservation strategies should be reassessed to better account for the central role of human impacts in the process of biological invasion.

Conservation action in a changing climate

AbstractClimate change will pose new challenges to conserving Earth's natural ecosystems, due to incremental changes in temperature and weather patterns, and to increased frequency and intensity of extreme climate events. Addressing these challenges will require pragmatic conservation actions informed by site‐specific understanding of susceptibility to climate change and capacity of societies to cope with and adapt to change. Depending on a location's environmental susceptibility and social adaptive capacity, appropriate conservation actions will require some combination of: (1) large‐scale protection of ecosystems; (2) actively transforming and adapting social‐ecological systems; (3) building the capacity of communities to cope with change; and (4) government assistance focused on de‐coupling communities from dependence on natural resources. We apply a novel analytical framework to examine conservation actions in five western Indian Ocean countries, where climate‐mediated disturbance has impacted coral reefs and where adaptive capacity differs markedly. We find that current conservation strategies do not reflect adaptive capacity and are, therefore, ill prepared for climate change. We provide a vision for conservation policies that considers social adaptive capacity that copes with complexities of climate change better than the singular emphasis on government control and the creation of no‐take areas.

Using spatial analysis to monitor tree diversity at a large scale: a case study in Northeast China Transect

Aims Monitoring and assessing diversity change at a large scale is important for any meaningful biodiversity conservation and management. Spatial analysis techniques can provide information about different aspects of diversity distribution including change. We applied some common spatial analysis methods and additive partitioning of species diversity in the Northeast China Transect as a case study to show how to characterize the distribution and change of tree diversity in this area from different perspectives. Methods The field data were collected from the permanent plots conducted every 4 km. The additive partitioning of species diversity was used to characterize the diversity of tree species at different scales. Moran’s I was used for identifying the spatial scale of autocorrelation, lacunarity was studied for diversity patch contagion and dispersion and spectral entropy was used for assessing the overall spatial distribution. Important findings Datacollectedfrom1986 to1994indicatethat the changeofa diversity was not significant in the study area, but the change of b diversity was significant. The percentage ofa diversity in total diversity (c) increased from 14.2 to 17.2%, and the percentage of b diversity decreased from 85.8 to 82.8%. For botha andb diversities, the scale of spatial autocorrelation decreased at the scale of 25–40 km and increased around 15–20 and 200 km. The lacunarity ofa diversity decreased significantly andtherewasasuddenchangeatthescaleof56–68km,butthelacunarity of b diversity increased across scales. The spectral entropy decreased slightly ina diversity and remained similar forb diversity. By using spatial analysis, we can monitor the diversity change over a large area and also assess the effectiveness of the current conservation strategies.

Estimation of mortality parameters from (biased) samples at death: are we getting the basics right in wildlife field studies? A response to Lovari et al. (2007)

In a recent paper dealing with wolf mortality in Italy (Lovari et al., 2007), the authors used a sample of 154 dead wolves incidentally found during a 11-year period to infer population parameters (e.g. sex and age ratios, mortality patterns, survivorship) and to provide a way to assess populationscale responses to conservation strategies. In our comment, we offer explanations as to why Lovari et al.’s (2007) paper has basic methodological flaws (e.g. inferences at the population level from an opportunistic sample of age at death and the use of static life-tables under violation of basic assumptions) that weaken the results, so that its conclusions are not warranted and should be cautiously interpreted. Generalizing from this specific case, we hereby argue that the use of opportunistic or convenience sampling (in this case, of dead animals) is not acceptable and should not be encouraged, especially if the results are used in population modelling in an applied perspective as these authors do, as many sources of bias can distort sample statistics from population parameters. Wildlife biologists working with endangered, low-density and elusive species such as large carnivores are constantly challenged to obtain robust and reliable population-scale datasets. These are needed to reliably assess the structure and dynamics of the populations, project their future trends and apply population models to conservation and management problems (Chapron et al., 2003). However, obtaining statistically, methodologically and biologically sound datasets at the population scale and for long time frames is not a trivial matter. Although researchers, especially dealing with endangered and threatened species, should strive to make the most out of any source of data, proper methodology and acknowledgment of potential sources of bias should be common practice ‘to get the basics right in wildlife field studies’ (Anderson, 2001) in order to provide ‘reliable knowledge’ (Romesburg, 1981). In a recent paper on wolf mortality (Lovari et al., 2007), the authors address the important topic of estimation of critical population parameters (i.e. population structure, reproduction, survivorship and mortality) for the wolfCanis lupus in central Italy, relating these parameters to current conservation strategies. By analysing a sample of incidentally found wolf carcasses, they conclude that ‘an extensive, routinely collection and analysis of wolf carcasses can be a relatively cheap but effective method to assess the state of a population, especially when data from the living population are missing’ (Lovari et al., 2007). We definitively concur with these authors that theirs is a worthwhile effort, as the lack of information at the population level undermines any rational approach to wolf management and conservation in Italy, as well in other European countries where the species is currently expanding its range (Boitani, 2003). However, we firmly believe that the use of these data (i.e. incidentally found carcasses) to infer population parameters and trends should not be encouraged, especially if the potential sources of biases are not adequately addressed. Although the authors recognize some limitations of their dataset, their concerns fall short and do not seem to have been stressed enough in their analyses. We believe that the major conclusions of the Lovari et al.’s paper are flawed by potential sources of bias that do not seem to have been adequately considered both in the results and discussion sections. In this letter, we explain why the basic nature of these flaws (e.g. inferences at the population level from an opportunistic sample of age at death, or the use of static life-tables under violation of basic assumptions) warrants some comments and criticism, in particular if the results are used in population modelling in an applied perspective (Chapron & Arlettaz, 2006). (1) In a truly representative sample of dead animals, each wolf dying in the population has the same probability of being reported, irrespective of its sex, age, social status, location, proximity to humans and cause of deaths. The sample of 154 dead wolves, incidentally found in central Italy by different observers (foresters, game wardens, etc.)

Beyond the wetland border: Estimating the impact of roads for two species of water snakes

We used models integrating road maps, traffic volume, and snake movements to examine the potential for roads to contribute to mortality in two species of water snakes that differ in their vagility, use of terrestrial habitats, and conservation status. Road networks and traffic volumes typical of three regions in Indiana, USA, may account for mortality of 14–21% of the population per year in the more vagile, terrestrial, and imperiled copperbelly water snake ( Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta) but only 3–5% mortality in the more sedentary, aquatic, and common northern water snake ( Nerodia sipedon). The majority (>91%) of road crossings and associated mortality are predicted to occur during overland migrations to other wetlands, suggesting roads bisecting travel routes between wetlands may function as mortality sinks. Our models highlight the proportionately greater risk of mortality for the more vagile and imperiled species, N. e. neglecta, and suggest current wetland conservation strategies that focus on the wetland alone are unlikely to adequately protect wetland biodiversity from certain types of anthropogenic habitat modification. What is needed is a landscape approach to wetland conservation that considers not only the quality of wetlands and nearby terrestrial habitats, but also ensures that terrestrial corridors between wetlands remain permeable and offer safe passage for wildlife.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ALLELIC DIVERSITY, A PRACTICAL MEANS OF PRESERVING AND USING MINOR ROOT CROP GENETIC RESOURCES

This paper addresses the preservation and use of minor root crop genetic resources, mostly aroids and yams. Conservation is fraught with difficulty: ex situ collections are expensive to maintain and methods for on-farm conservation have not been studied. Conventional breeding strategies present serious limitations when applied to these species. Furthermore, the evaluation and distribution of improved material are as problematical as its conservation. The similarities shared by these species regarding their domestication, breeding constraints and improvement strategies as well as farmers' needs, are briefly reviewed. Based on these biological constraints, we propose a practical alternative to current conservation and breeding strategies. This approach focuses on the geographical distribution of allelic diversity rather than localized ex situ and/or in situ preservation of genotypes. The practical steps are described and discussed. First, a core sample representing the useful diversity of the species is assembled from accessions selected for their diverse and distant geographic origins, wide genetic distances, quality, agronomic performances and functional sexuality. Second, the geographical distribution of this core sample, in vitro via a transit centre, allows the direct use of selected genotypes by farmers or for breeding purposes. Third, the distribution of genes is realized in the form of clones resulting from segregating progenies and, fourth, farmers select clones with local adaptation.

The Cost Efficiency of Wild Dog Conservation in South Africa

Abstract: Aside from Kruger National Park, no other suitable reserves of sufficient size exist in South Africa that will hold a viable population of wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). Consequently, conservation efforts have been focused on creating a metapopulation through a series of wild dog reintroductions into isolated fenced reserves. Additional potential exists for conserving wild dogs on private ranch land. Establishing the metapopulation was an expensive process, accounting for approximately 75% of the US$380,000 spent on wild dog conservation in South Africa during 1997‐2001. The principal goal of the metapopulation project was to reduce the risk of catastrophic population decline. Now that this has been achieved, we developed a uniform cost‐efficiency index to estimate the cost efficiency of current and potential future conservation strategies in South Africa. Conserving wild dogs in large protected areas was predicted to be the most cost‐efficient conservation strategy (449 packs/$100,000 expenditure). Establishing the metapopulation has been less cost efficient (23 packs/$100,000), and expansion of the metapopulation was predicted to be even less cost efficient if predation by wild dogs results in additional costs, as is to be expected if private reserves are used for reintroductions (3‐13 packs/$100,000). Because of low logistical costs, conserving wild dogs in situ on private ranch land was potentially more cost efficient than reintroducing wild dogs (14‐27 packs/$100,000). We recommend that donor funding be used to reintroduce wild dogs into transfrontier parks, when they are established, to maintain the existing metapopulation and to establish conservation programs involving wild dogs on private ranch land. Investing in the expansion of the metapopulation should be limited to state‐owned nature reserves willing to carry predation costs without compensation.

Global patterns of plant diversity and floristic knowledge

AbstractAims We present the first global map of vascular plant species richness by ecoregion and compare these results with the published literature on global priorities for plant conservation. In so doing, we assess the state of floristic knowledge across ecoregions as described in floras, checklists, and other published documents and pinpoint geographical gaps in our understanding of the global vascular plant flora. Finally, we explore the relationships between plant species richness by ecoregion and our knowledge of the flora, and between plant richness and the human footprint – a spatially explicit measure of the loss and degradation of natural habitats and ecosystems as a result of human activities.Location Global.Methods Richness estimates for the 867 terrestrial ecoregions of the world were derived from published richness data of c. 1800 geographical units. We applied one of four methods to assess richness, depending on data quality. These included collation and interpretation of published data, use of species–area curves to extrapolate richness, use of taxon‐based data, and estimates derived from other ecoregions within the same biome.Results The highest estimate of plant species richness is in the Borneo lowlands ecoregion (10,000 species) followed by nine ecoregions located in Central and South America with ≥ 8000 species; all are found within the Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests biome. Among the 51 ecoregions with ≥ 5000 species, only five are located in temperate regions. For 43% of the 867 ecoregions, data quality was considered good or moderate. Among biomes, adequate data are especially lacking for flooded grasslands and flooded savannas. We found a significant correlation between species richness and data quality for only a few biomes, and, in all of these cases, our results indicated that species‐rich ecoregions are better studied than those poor in vascular plants. Similarly, only in a few biomes did we find significant correlations between species richness and the human footprint, all of which were positive.Main conclusions The work presented here sets the stage for comparisons of degree of concordance of plant species richness with plant endemism and vertebrate species richness: important analyses for a comprehensive global biodiversity strategy. We suggest: (1) that current global plant conservation strategies be reviewed to check if they cover the most outstanding examples of regions from each of the world's major biomes, even if these examples are species‐poor compared with other biomes; (2) that flooded grasslands and flooded savannas should become a global priority in collecting and compiling richness data for vascular plants; and (3) that future studies which rely upon species–area calculations do not use a uniform parameter value but instead use values derived separately for subregions.

Current status and conservation strategies for Isoetes in China: a case study for the conservation of threatened aquatic plants

There are four known species of Isoetes (Family Isoetaceae) from China: I. hypsophila, I. sinensis and I. yunguiensis on the mainland, and I. taiwanensis on Taiwan. In a 4-year study we documented the distribution and habitat characteristics of all four species and evaluated their conservation status using IUCN criteria. All four species are facing a high risk of extinction and should be categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Habitat degradation and loss, water pollution and eutrophication, competitive exclusion, and human disturbance are the main factors causing the decline and extirpation of Isoetes. Only I. taiwanensis is protected in situ in Yangmingshan National Park on Taiwan. None of the species or habitats of Isoetes on mainland China are presently protected, although all species have been designated by the government as State Key Protected Wild Plants. Our results suggest that conservation strategies should be implemented urgently, particularly on the mainland.

Ectomycorrhizae and forestry in British Columbia: A summary of current research and conservation strategies

Ectomycorrhizae are fungus-root associations that comprise the feeder roots of most commercially important conifers in British Columbia. A large body of research has been conducted on ectomycorrhizae as they relate to forestry in the province; however, much of this information is scattered and is generally of a highly technical nature.This extension note summarizes the latest research on ectomycorrhizae, including information on the role that ectomycorrhizal fungi play in forest ecosystems. The authors discuss several helpful forest management practices that can maintain a diverse community of ectomycorrhizal fungi across the landscape. These include: retaining refuge plants, mature trees, and old-growth forests; retaining the forest floor during harvest and mechanical site preparation; avoiding high-intensity broadcast burns; minimizing the effects of species shifts, particularly following grass seeding; maintaining the edge-to-area ratio of harvested areas within certain limits; planting a mixture of tree species soon after harvest; retaining coarse woody debris; and managing for the fruiting bodies formed by ectomycorrhizal fungi, including edible mushrooms and truffles, fungi species used by wildlife, and rare and endemic species.

The potential importance of migratory stopover sites as flight feather molt staging areas: a review for neotropical migrants

The decline of many species of Neotropical migrants has prompted increased research on their ecology on their breeding and wintering grounds. However, studies of their ecology during migration are relatively few. Despite documentation of molt-migration in at least six Neotropical passerine species, this phenomenon has been ignored in current conservation strategies for Neotropical migrants. In this review paper, we suggest that molt studies need to be done as a way to refine and improve conservation plans for Neotropical migrants. We identify three important questions that merit further study: (1) which Neotropical migrant species undergo flight feather molt at migratory-stopover sites; (2) where are molt-migration stopover sites geographically located; and (3) why are these sites preferred as stopover sites during molt? Finding answers to these questions will allow us to protect molt staging areas occupied by Neotropical migrants during migration as many wetland and nearshore oceanic habitats have been protected for molting waterfowl, shorebirds, and seabirds.

The Politics of the Biosphere

Biosphere reserves are generally conceived of as an important part of the current global conservation strategy. Yet how does a particular region receive such a designation and such protection? How does scientific knowledge and the interests and desires of specific groups affect these designations? In what ways do the main actors involved in these processes exercise power in order to shape the policies and protocols that govern biosphere reserves?

Representation of natural vegetation in protected areas: capturing the geographic range

Current conservation strategies for plant and animal species rarely address the need to protect the species throughout its geographic range thereby capturing potential genetic and ecological variation. We examined the degree that existing protected areas in the western United States satisfied this goal for four widespread vegetation cover types. We used latitude and longitude to stratify the distribution of these types into 16 cells, each of which was further stratified by up to five elevation classes. While protection of some vegetation types was high in parts of their range, it was minimal to nonexistent in other parts. While it is yet to be shown that protecting a given species throughout its geographic range is essential for its long-term existence, in the face of often unpredictable environmental changes, it seems a prudent course to follow. Our results suggest that if full range protection is a conservation goal, the existing network of protected areas may be inadequate for the task.

Requiem for nature

In Requiem for Nature, John Terborgh examines current conservation strategies and considers the shortcomings of parks and protected areas both from ecological and institutional perspectives. He explains how seemingly pristine environments can gradually degrade, and describes the difficult social context-a debilitating combination of poverty, corruption, abuses of power, political instability, and a frenzied scramble for quick riches-in which tropical conservation must take place. He considers the significant challenges facing existing parks and examines problems inherent in alternative approaches, such as ecotourism, the exploitation of nontimber forest products, sustainable use, and sustainable development. Throughout, Terborgh argues that the greatest challenges of conservation are not scientific, but are social, economic, and political, and that success will require simultaneous progress on all fronts. He makes a compelling case that nature can be saved, but only if good science and strong institutions can be thoughtfully combined.