Current Balance Condition Research Articles

The Analysis of Indonesia’s Current Account Balance Deficit of 2018 to 2022 Period

One of the current developments in world economic conditions is an open economy, which involves engaging in international trade (Exports and Imports) of goods and services as well as capital with other countries. In an open economy, there are four components of national income, namely consumption, investment, government spending and the trade balance. International transactions of the countries of the world are recorded in the balance of payments. This study aims to analyze the causes of Indonesia's current account balance to continue to be in deficit, find out the policies set by the government to overcome this and find out the results of the implementation of these policies on changes in current account balance conditions. This study uses descriptive quantitative research methods, while the data collection techniques are carried out by exploring secondary data from Bapenas, Bank Indonesia, the Central Bureau of Statistics and other written sources both in the form of statistical data, research journals that have been carried out by previous researchers and other written sources. books reference books related to research. The results of the study show that the cause of the current account deficit during the period 2018 to 2022 is due to the high import compared to exports both in terms of the flow of goods and services, this is because domestic production has not been able to meet domestic needs so to fulfill it must be done by means of imports. In addition, the current account deficit was also caused by global factors, namely the weak global economy and war. Meanwhile, the Government's policy in overcoming the current account deficit has not been optimally focused on industry. The weakening global economy can be a business opportunity for Indonesia to further increase exports.

Current Account Balance in Emerging Asia

Abstract The current account balance is an important indicator which reveals information on a country’s economic situation such as investments, capital flows, and indebtedness. The main purpose of this study is to examine the current account balance conditions in emerging Asian countries. In this respect, the long-run and causality relationship between current account balance, economic growth, government expenditure, real interest rates, and foreign direct investment was examined. The panel data analysis was applied using the data dated 1986 to 2015. Our results revealed a causal effect from economic growth and government expenditure to current account balance mainly dependent on saving tendency.

Laboratory measurements of dusty surface charging in plasma.

A novel method is developed to study the charging of a conducting surface covered by a thin dust layer in plasma. The potential profile in the dust layer and the floating potential of the surface underneath are measured directly by embedding conducting wires in the dust and connecting the wires to a measurement plate outside the vacuum chamber, where a Trek non-contacting electrostatic voltmeter measures the floating potential of the measurement plate. Laboratory experiments are carried out to study plasma charging of a conducting plate covered by lunar dust simulant, JSC-1A. The results show that the plate potential is dependent on both the ambient plasma condition and the dust layer thickness. The current balance condition controls the floating potential of the dust surface while the dust layer acts as a capacitor and controls the potential of the plate with respect to the dust surface. Hence, a dust covered conducting plate will be charged more negatively than a clean plate.

Charging of small grains in a space plasma: Application to Jovian stream particles

Most theoretical investigations of dust charging processes in space have treated the current balance condition as independent of grain size. However, for small grains, as they are often observed in space environments, a dependence on grain size is expected due to secondary electron emission (SEE). Here, by the term "small" we mean a particle size comparable to the typical penetration depth for given primary electron energy. The results are relevant for the dynamics of small, charged dust particles emitted by the volcanic moon Io, which form the Jovian dust streams. We revise the theory of charging of small (sub-micron sized) micrometeoroids to take into account a high production of secondary electrons for small grains immersed in an isotropic flux of electrons. We apply our model to obtain an improved estimate for the charge of the dust streams leaving the Jovian system, detected by several spacecraft. For the Jupiter plasma environment we derive the surface potential of grains composed of NaCl (believed to be the major constituent of Jovian dust stream particles) or silicates. For small particles the potential depends on grain size and the secondary electron current induces a sensitivity to material properties. As a result of the small particle effect, the estimates for the charging times and for the fractional charge fluctuations of NaCl grains obtained using our general approach to SEE give results qualitatively different from the analogous estimates derived from the traditional approach to SEE. We find that for the charging environment considered in this paper field emission does not limit the charging of NaCl grains.

Electrostatic environment near lunar vertical hole: 3D plasma particle simulations

The dayside electrostatic environment near the lunar surface is governed by interactions among the solar wind plasma, photoelectrons, and the charged lunar surface, providing topologically complex boundaries to the plasma. Three-dimensional, particle-in-cell simulations are applied to recently discovered vertical holes on the Moon, which have spatial scales of tens of meters and greater depth-to-diameter ratios than typical impact craters. The vertical wall of the hole introduces a new boundary for both photo and solar wind electrons. The current balance condition established at a hole bottom is altered by the limited solar wind electron penetration into the hole due to loss at the wall and photoelectron current path connecting the hole bottom and wall surfaces. The self-consistent modeling not only reproduces intense differential charging between sunlit and shadowed surfaces, but also reveals the potential difference between sunlit surfaces inside and outside the hole, demonstrating the uniqueness of the near-hole electrostatic environment.

On the Modeling and Simulation of Reaction-Transfer Dynamics in Semiconductor-Electrolyte Solar Cells

The mathematical modeling and numerical simulation of semiconductor-electrolyte systems play important roles in the design of high-performance semiconductor-liquid junction solar cells. In this work, we propose a macroscopic mathematical model, a system of nonlinear partial differential equations, for the complete description of charge transfer dynamics in such systems. The model consists of a reaction-drift-diffusion-Poisson system that models the transport of electrons and holes in the semiconductor region and an equivalent system that describes the transport of reductants and oxidants, as well as other charged species, in the electrolyte region. The coupling between the semiconductor and the electrolyte is modeled through a set of interfacial reaction and current balance conditions. We present some numerical simulations to illustrate the quantitative behavior of the semiconductor-electrolyte system in both dark and illuminated environments. We show numerically that one can replace the electrolyte region in the system with a Schottky contact only when the bulk reductant-oxidant pair density is extremely high. Otherwise, such replacement gives significantly inaccurate description of the real dynamics of the semiconductor-electrolyte system.

Surface current balance and thermoelectric whistler wings at airless astrophysical bodies: Cassini at Rhea.

Sharp magnetic perturbations found by the Cassini spacecraft at the edge of the Rhea flux tube are consistent with field-aligned flux tube currents. The current system results from the difference of ion and electron gyroradii and the requirement to balance currents on the sharp Rhea surface. Differential-type hybrid codes that solve for ion velocity and magnetic field have an intrinsic difficulty modeling the plasma absorber's sharp surface. We overcome this problem by instead using integral equations to solve for ion and electron currents and obtain agreement with the magnetic perturbations at Rhea's flux tube edge. An analysis of the plasma dispersion relations and Cassini data reveals that field-guided whistler waves initiated by (1) the electron velocity anisotropy in the flux tube and (2) interaction with surface sheath electrostatic waves on topographic scales may facilitate propagation of the current system to large distances from Rhea. Current systems like those at Rhea should occur generally, for plasma absorbers of any size such as spacecraft or planetary bodies, in a wide range of space plasma environments. Motion through the plasma is not essential since the current system is thermodynamic in origin, excited by heat flow into the object. The requirements are a difference of ion and electron gyroradii and a sharp surface, i.e., without a significant thick atmosphere.Key PointsSurface current balance condition yields a current system at astronomical bodiesCurrent system possible for sharp (airless) objects of any sizeCurrent system is thermoelectric and motion through the plasma nonessential

Design and Characterization of an Eight-Phase-137-kW Intercell Transformer Dedicated to Multicell DC–DC Stages in a Modular UPS

Recent uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, in the medium power range (a few 100 kW), are based on a three-power stage topology including a rectifier, an inverter, and a dc-dc converter. The dc-dc converter ensures the charger/discharger function necessary for battery management. The monolithic intercell transformer (ICT) described in this paper is dedicated to such a charger/discharger, of which the nominal power is 137 kW. This dc-dc converter is comprised of eight interleaved cells that are interconnected by the ICT. The first part of this paper briefly presents the full UPS system and the topology of the eight-cell charger/discharger arranged around the eight-phase monolithic ICT. The second part suggests a model and emphasizes the design specificities of the monolithic ICT. The final design is provided by an optimization routine, checked in the end by different 2-D and 3-D finite-element simulations, both electromagnetic and thermal. The third part describes the construction of the ICT prototype. It is then placed in a test bench that reproduces the conditions of future operations and provides current balance conditions. Finally, the experimental results obtained for the 137-kW nominal power validate design parameters and confirm the interest of the ICT solution.

An Interpretation of Langmuir Probe Floating Voltage Signals in a Cutting Arc

An experimental study of the electrostatic probe floating voltage signals in a cutting arc and its physical interpretation in terms of the arc plasma structure is reported. Sweeping electrostatic probes have been used to register the local floating potential and ion current at 3.5 mm from the nozzle exit in a 30-A arc generated by a high energy density cutting torch with a nozzle bore radius of 0.5 mm and an oxygen mass flow rate of 0.71 g ldr s-1. It is found that the floating potential signal presented a central hump with duration almost similar to that corresponding to the ion current signal but having also lateral wings with much larger duration. Capacitive coupling between the probe and the conducting body of the nozzle and arc as a source for the floating potential signal was discarded. It is assumed that the hump in these probe voltage signals results from the presence of an electrostatic field directed in the radial direction outward the arc axis that is caused by thermoelectric effects. The probe floating voltage signal is inverted using the generalized Ohm's law together with the Saha equation, thus obtaining the radial profiles of the temperature, particle densities, radial electric field, and potential of the plasma at the studied section of the arc. The resulting temperature and density profiles derived from our interpretation are in good agreement with the data published elsewhere in this kind of high-pressure arcs. There is not a straightforward connection between the measured hump amplitude in the floating signal (ap4 V) and the derived increase in the plasma potential between the arc edge and the arc center ( ap10 V), due to the global zero current balance condition established by the finite size of the probe. It is shown, however, that the probe takes a floating potential value close to that corresponding to the plasma temperature at the probe center.

Comparison between Dual Radio Frequency- and Pulse-Driven Sheath near Insulating Substrates

We carry out a comparison between the characteristics of radio frequency- and pulse-sheath near insulating substrates driven by dual frequency (DF) sources making use of the fluid model in which the self-bias voltage on the electrode is obtained consistently under a current balance condition. The results show that the combination of the higher and lower frequency source modulate the characteristics of the radio-frequency- and pulse-sheath: the higher frequency makes the physical quantities oscillate fast while the slow oscillating contour of variation in physical quantities is modulated by the lower frequency source. However, there are some differences between the capacity of mitigating the charging effects on the surface of the insulator, i.e., the pulsed driven plasma gains an advantage over the radio-frequency driven one because the 'off' state of the pulse allow more electrons to reach the insulating surface to neutralize the positive charge due to the incident ion as the pulse being in the pulse's duty. In addition, the ion energy distribution (IED) bombarding the surface of the insulator has a range of energy for the radio-frequency bias while that for the pulse bias is discontinuous.

In situ measurement of thermal electrons on the SIERRA nightside auroral sounding rocket

In January 2002 the SIERRA sounding rocket was launched from Alaska into active substorm expansion aurora. Direct measurements of the cold ionospheric population in darkness were made by the Thermal Electron Detector (TED), which was designed to measure thermal electrons that can carry auroral currents coupling the lower ionosphere and the magnetosphere. Measurement of thermal electrons must be accompanied by a careful study of electrostatic potentials forming near conducting bodies in a plasma. The TED instrument measurements show that a nonmonotonic potential barrier can form in the sheath around the attractively biased detector and prevent measurements of the core of the thermal electrons. The TED instrument design and response are discussed along with the current balance conditions which can lead to the formation of a potential barrier. A plasma distribution reconstruction technique enables key measurements of temperature, density, spacecraft potential, and an estimate of field‐aligned current flow. Observed thermal electron core temperatures vary greatly, from ∼0.1 eV in the polar cap to ∼0.8 eV in auroral arcs. Outside active precipitation, the electron density agrees with an independent calculation based on measurements from the high‐frequency (HF) wave receiver, verifying the method used for estimating the spacecraft potential. In the auroral regions the HF measurement of electron plasma density must be used to extract more accurate results for the spacecraft potential. The thermal electron data indicate that in the dark the nonnegligible auroral and secondary emission currents must be accounted for in order to understand the spacecraft potential and its impact on thermal electron measurements.

An Extension of the Layer-Pore Resistance Model for Electrode Passivation

A theoretical model for a surface reaction involving the deposition of a non-conducting porous layer by simultaneous spreading and thickening is described. The ratio of the kinetic and Ohmic contributions to the total resistance of the reaction is equal to Wa/θ1/2, where θ is the coverage fraction and Wa is the Wagner number, a dimensionless group which includes the film thickness, electrolyte conductivity and reaction exchange current density. The corresponding contributions to the total overpotential are determined by application of a current-balance condition. Analytical expressions are given for the current-potential curves in the limit of linear polarization, and for the relation between the coverage fraction and the Wagner number at the current peak. It is shown that the linear polarization law is a good approximation if Wa/θ1/2 < 0.1, and that the theory reduces to the layer-pore resistance model when Wa = 0. The behaviour predicted by the theory in the linear and non-linear polarization regimes is compared, and the use of the model in the analysis of experimental results is discussed.

Analysis of kinetic and ohmic polarization effects in passivation processes under potentiodynamic control

A theoretical model for a surface reaction involving the deposition of a nonconducting porous layer is described. The model includes explicitly the ohmic and kinetic contributions to the total resistance of the reaction, and a current-balance condition is applied to determine in a self-consistent manner the corresponding contributions to the total overpotential. The relative importance of the kinetic and ohmic effects is expressed by the value of the Wagner number, Wa, which is equal to the ratio of polarization resistance to ohmic resistance, and includes the combined effect of film thickness, electrolyte conductivity and reaction exchange current density. It is shown that the linear polarization law is a good approximation if Wa < 0.1, and that the theory reduces to the Layer-Pore Resistance model when Wa = 0. Analytical expression are given for the current-potential curves in the limit of linear polarization, and for the relation between peak currents and potential scan rates for linear and nonlinear polarization models. The use of these expressions in the analysis of experimental results is demonstrated, and the behaviour predicted by the theory in the linear and nonlinear polarization regimes is compared.

定電圧変圧器を用いたＵＰＳシステムの並列運転

Operations of parallel-connected Triport UPS systems are discussed. The parallel operation becomes important (1) for increasing the rated kVA of the system and (2) for realizing a redundant system to improve the system reliability. We first consider the typical parallel operation of two Triports under the normal mode and analyze the current balance conditions which make the ratio of output currents equal to that of the kVA ratings. Discussions are then extended to the parallel system of n (≥2) Triports. Experimental results are shown of the current sharing characteristics at steady state and so forth.

Current sheet acceleration of ions in the geomagnetic tail and the properties of ion bursts observed at the lunar distance

Recent analyses of measurements obtained from the Rice University Apollo 14 SIDE on the lunar surface have revealed the frequent appearance of fast tailward-streaming ion “bursts” near the centre plane of the geomagnetic tail. In this paper the properties of these “bursts” are tested for compatibility with tail current sheet tangential stress balance conditions assuming that they are produced by current sheet acceleration of tail lobe plasma downstream and tailward of a magnetic neutral line. Calculations are performed taking the ions to be either protons or singly charged oxygen, the latter possibility being directly suggested by several recent observations. When “burst” bulk parameters are calculated by assuming that the ion distribution functions are convecting isotropic Maxwellians, the results are found to be difficult to reconcile with current sheet stress balance conditions for either protons or oxygen. Use of a different ion distribution based on theoretical expectations and observations in the near-Earth tail, however, results in number density estimates being increased by factors of around an order of magnitude. When the revised densities and ion distribution functions are taken into account, reasonable agreement between observed and expected ion bulk speeds is obtained. In some cases the agreement is better assuming oxygen ions rather than protons, but not by a large factor.

Io as an emitter of 100-kev electrons

If the surface conductivity of Jupiter's satellite Io is greater than 5 × 10−11 Ω−1 cm−1 and if the height-integrated Pederson conductivity of the Jovian ionosphere is greater than 0.6 mho, then it is likely that significant Debye and photoelectron sheaths form around Io. When the current balance condition between emitted photoelectrons and collected ambient electrons is used, the potential across the sheath can approach the 670-kV motional emf developed as Io moves through the Jovian magnetic field. The characteristic sheath thickness is estimated to be 50 km. As a result of the Debye sheath, photoelectrons emitted at the surface of Io can be accelerated to several hundred keV along the magnetic field lines and precipitate into the Jovian atmosphere with a flux of 105 el m−2 s−1 eV−1 averaged over the Io flux tube. This electron beam may carry in excess of 1010 W and may cause the decametric emissions. Also, 1024 el s−1 may be trapped on the field lines associated with Io. These electrons may cause the decimetric synchrotron emission. Variations of the electron spectra are considered as a function of Io’s orbital position accounting for the tilted dipole field.

The Wall Potential in Low Pressure Diode Ion Pumps†

ABSTRACT The relationship between the wall potential in low pressure gas diodes and parameters such as the gas pressure and composition, electron current and energy, has been investigated. The results are found to compare favourably with a simple theory based on current balance conditions at the wall.