Cultivated Ginseng Research Articles

RETRACTED: Identification and Analysis of Differentially Expressed Genes in Mountain Cultivated Ginseng and Mountain Wild Ginseng

Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines in the world. Wild ginseng is thought to be more effective than cultivated ginseng in chemoprevention; however, little has been reported on the differences between wild and cultivated ginseng. In the present study we used suppressive subtractive hybridization to identify wild ginseng-specific genes. One of the clones isolated in this screen was the NRT2 gene (designated pNRT2), a high-affinity nitrate transporter. Real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction results showed that pNRT2 expression was significantly upregulated in wild ginseng compared with cultivated ginseng. However, pNRT2 mRNA levels were similar between mountain cultivated ginseng and mountain wild ginseng. Nitrate is an important nitrogen source for plant growth, and its soil levels can vary in wild environments; thus it is conceivable that pNRT2 expression is upregulated in wild ginseng and may be an important marker of wild ginseng.

산삼 약침이 정상 중년여성의 맥파요인에 미치는 영향

Objectives: The aim of this experiment is to know about Effect of pulse-wave factors in Middle Aged Women by Mountain Cultivated Ginseng Pharmacopuncture. Methods: First 20 Middle Aged women are diagnosed by pulse diagnosis, and then Mountain Cultivated Ginseng Pharmacopuncture(1 injection 20cc) were injected. 30 minutes later, pulse diagnosis again performed. As a result, method of one-group pretest-posttes design were used for evaluation. Results: T(Total pulse cycle) time statistically significant increased on both left and right chon, kwan, cheok. T4 time statistically significant increased on both left and right chon, kwan, cheok. T4-T1/T indexs except left cheokmaek, Right cheokmaek observation area decreased significantly in four sites. Wm(indicating high pressure retention time) indexs increased significantly in the five sites were observed except right chon maek. Conclusions: Effect of pulse-wave factors in Middle Aged Women by Mountain Cultivated Ginseng Pharmacopuncture increased T, T4, Wm and decreased T4-T1/T indexs. The results of this experiment, Mountain Cultivated Ginseng Pharmacopuncture induced to increase the Pulse-wave`s stability and strength.

Ginsenosides contents of forest cultivated Ginseng (Panax ginseng) in Korea

The objective of this study was to collect basic data for medicinal ingredients such as ginsenosides (Re and Rb1) contents grown in forests in Korea. To achieve this purpose, 10 forest stands have been selected in various mountain areas. Agricultural cultivated ginseng was used to compare with ginsenosides of forest ginseng. Rb 1 and Re contents of forest ginseng grown in 10 forests were higher than agricultural cultivated ginseng. Regionally, Rb1, and Re contents of the Panax ginseng grown in Jeongsun, Sangju and Namyangju were generally higher than those of 10 other forests in Korea

열처리 및 발효과정이 인삼 및 산양삼의 ginsenoside 함량에 미치는 영향

【Objectives: The aim of this experiment is to provide an objective differentiation of cultivated ginseng, mountain ginseng through component analysis, and to know the change of gin senoside components in the process of heating and fermentation Methods: Comparative analyses of ginsenoside $Rb_1$ , $Rb_2$ , Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, $Rg_1$ , $Rg_3$ , $Rh_1$ , and $Rh_2$ , from the cultivated ginseng 4 and 6 years, and mountain cultivated ginseng were conducted using HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography, hereafter HPLC). And the same analyses were conducted in the process of heating and fermentation using mixed Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium lactis for 7 days. Results: The change of ginsenosides to the process of red ginseng and fermentation, cultivated ginseng and mountain cultivated ginseng were showed another results. Mountain ginseng showed a lot of change compared with cultivated ginsengs. In the 7 days of fermentation, mountain ginseng showed that ginsenoside $Rg_1$ , $Rb_1$ , $Rb_2$ , Rc, and Rd were decreased and increased ginsenoside Re, Rf, $Rg_3$ and $Rh_1$ were increased compared with cultivated ginseng Conclusions: It seemed that ginsenosides of mountain cultivated ginseng was better resolved than cultivated ginseng because the difference of structure or distribution of ginsenosides in the condition of fermentation.】

Advanced Cancer Cases Treated With Cultivated Wild Ginseng Phamacopuncture

After administering cultivated wild ginseng pharmacopuncture (CWGP) to advanced cancer patients, the response and survival rate were evaluated. This prospective observational pilot study of CWGP was conducted at the East-West Cancer Center of Daejeon University, Dunsan Oriental Hospital from August 2007 to June 2008. Seven patients were recruited for this study. One cycle of treatment consisted of intravenous infusion of CWGP (20 mL/day) for 2 weeks with an expected treatment duration of four cycles (60 days, 2 months). Blood tests were conducted every cycle and computed tomography was performed every second cycle as follow-up. Overall survival was measured from initial administration of CWGP to death. We used the international standards provided by the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors for measuring response rate and Kaplan-Meier analysis to determine statistical significance. Seven patients received a total of 55 cycles (1 with 1 cycle, 2 with 2 cycles, 1 with 3 cycles, 2 with 13 cycles, 1 with 20 cycles). One-year survival rate was 57.1%, and the median survival time was 544 days. Among these patients, two non-small cell lung carcinoma patients and one advanced gastric adenocarcinoma patient showed stable disease. Two patients dropped out after the first and second cycles of treatment without receiving a new computed tomography scan. Two patients showed progressive disease. Although a further large scale study is necessary, CWGP showed potential as an effective treatment for two non-small cell lung carcinoma patients and one advanced gastric carcinoma patient.

인삼.산양삼.자연산 산삼의 ginsenoside 함량 분석 및 홍삼화 후의 변화 관찰

Objectives: The aim of this experiment is to provide an objective differentiation of cultivated ginseng, cultivated wild ginseng, and wild ginseng through component analysis, and to know the change of ginsenoside components in the process for making red ginseng. Methods: Comparative analysis of ginsenoside , Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, and from the cultivated ginseng 4 and 6 years, cultivated wild ginseng, and wild ginseng were conducted using High Performance Liquid Chromatography(hereafter HPLC). And the same analyses were conducted in the process of red ginseng. Results: 1. For content comparison of ginsenoside , Rc, Rd, Rf, and , wild ginseng showed high content, followed cultivated ginseng 4 and 6 years, cultivated wild ginseng showed low content than any other samples. 2. For content comparison of ginsenoside and Re, cultivated ginseng 4 years showed high content, followed wild ginseng and cultivated ginseng 6 years, cultivated wild ginseng showed low content than any other samples. 3. For content comparison of ginsenoside , wild ginseng and cultivated wild ginseng were only showed low content. 4. For content comparison of ginsenoside , cultivated wild ginseng was only showed low content. 5. In the process of red ginseng, ginsenoside , Rc, Rd, and were increased, and ginsenoside Re and were decreased in cultivated wild ginseng. 6. In the process of red ginseng, ginsenoside and were increased, and ginsenoside , Rc, and Re were decreased in cultivated ginseng 4 years. 7. In the process of red ginseng, ginsenoside , Rf and were increased, and ginsenoside Rc and Rd were decreased in cultivated ginseng 6 years. Conclusions: Distribution of ginsenoside contents to the cultivated ginseng, cultivated wild ginseng, and wild ginseng was similar and was not showed special characteristics between samples. And the change of ginsenoside to the process of red ginseng, cultivated ginseng and cultivated wild ginseng were showed different aspect.

Anti-metastatic mechanism of mountain cultivated wild ginseng in human cancer cell line

Objective : Ginseng is one of most widely used herbal medicine. Ginseng showed anti-metastasis activities. However, its molecular mechanisms of action are unknown. So we want to report the wild ginseng repress which plays key roles in neoplastic epithelial-mesenchymal transition process. Methods : Treatment of the human colorectal carcinoma LOVO cells and human gastric carcinoma SNU601 cells with the increased concentrations of cultivated wild ginseng extracts resulted in a gradual decrease in the AXIN2 gene expression. Results : Metastasis-suppressor genes, maspin and nm23 was not affected by the treatment of ginseng extracts in LOVO cells. Moreover, the mountain cultivated wild ginseng or mountain wild ginseng are similar in their inhibitory effects on the expression of AXIN2 gene, but are substantially stronger than cultivated ginseng. Conclusion : We described the novel mechanism of wild ginseng-induced anti-metastasis activity by repressing the expression of AXIN2 gene that plays key roles in epithelial-mesenchymal transition process.

Effect of wild ginseng on scopolamine-induced acetylcholine depletion in the rat hippocampus

The ameliorating effects of wild ginseng on learning and memory deficits were investigated in rats. Rats were treated daily with wild ginseng or cultivated ginseng for 7 days at 30 min before scopolamine injection (2 mg/kg, i.p.). After inducing cognitive impairment by the administration of scopolamine, behavioural assessment using the Morris water maze was performed. Changes in cholinergic system reactivity were also examined by measuring the immunoreactive neurons of choline acetyltransferase and the reactivity of acetylcholinesterase in the hippocampus. Scopolamine injection induced impaired performance in the water maze test and severe cell losses in hippocampal cholinergic neurons, as indicated by decreased choline acetyltransferase immunoreactivity and increased acetylcholinesterase reactivity. Daily administration of wild ginseng produced a significant improvement in the escape latency for finding the platform in the Morris water maze and reduced the loss of cholinergic immunoreactivity in the hippocampus. The reduced expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA due to the scopolamine injection was recovered to normal levels by the administration of wild ginseng. Wild ginseng demonstrates a significant neuroprotective effect against scopolamine-induced neuronal and cognitive impairment.

Investigation of characteristic microstructures of wild ginseng by X-ray phase contrast microscopy

X-ray phase contrast microscopy (XPCM) achieves the high contrast imaging of low electron density materials with the spatial coherence peculiarity of X-rays. Considering that ginsengs are mainly composed of C, H, O, N and other low-Z elements, XPCM is an ideal tool to nondestructively investigate the characteristic microstructures of ginsengs in principle. Owing to the higher fluxes and luminance of the third generation of synchrotron radiation facility, it can present clearer and finer microstructures of ginsengs with better spatial and temporal resolutions. In this paper, the characteristic microstructures of wild ginseng ware investigated systemically by XPCM at Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility (SSRF). For comparison, the characteristic structures of cultivated ginseng are also studied correspondingly. Moreover, a kind of new microstructure is found in young ginsengs, which is possibly a new characteristic structure of ginsengs. The results demonstrates that XPCM is a promising new method of identifying wild ginseng.

인삼 및 산양삼의 항산화 효능 비교 -Superoxide radical과 Hydroxy radical 소거활성을 중심으로-

Objectives : The objective of this study was to compare the antioxidant effects among cultivated wild ginseng and ginseng extracts. Methods : In vitro antioxidant activities were examined by superoxide and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities of ginseng and cultivated wild ginseng extracts. Results : 1. In the superoxide radical scavenging activities of ginseng and cultivated wild ginseng extracts, antioxidant activities of cultivated wild ginseng extracts was showed higher than cultivated ginseng in the concentration of 0.25 and . 2. In the hydroxyl radical scavenging activities of ginseng and cultivated wild ginseng extracts, antioxidant activities of cultivated wild ginseng extracts was showed higher than cultivated ginseng in the concentration of 1.0, 2.5, and . Conclusions : In summary, the results of this study demonstrate that cultivated wild ginseng extracts had higher antioxidant activities to cultivated ginseng.

Biodiversity in cultivatedPanax notoginsengpopulations1

Panax notoginseng is a cultivated ginseng species highly valued for its various pharmacological activities mostly associated with triterpenoid saponin glycosides. It would be of great interest to understand biodiversity in this ginseng species after its long history of domestication. We collected 92 random sampled 3-year-old P notoginseng plants from 4 counties of Wenshan prefecture in Yunnan province, China and documented their morphological features of plant height, stem color, number of leaves/leaflets and dry weight of tap root. Their genetic diversity was evaluated by fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism (fAFLP) analysis. Among the samples collected, variable morphological features were observed. For these 4 populations (Zhulijie, Shangliuhe, Bazai and Jinbuhuan) analyzed by fAFLP, percentage of polymorphic bands among the total number of 582 discrete bands were 74.05%, 45.36%, 38.83% and 51.89% respectively. Mean genetic heterozygosity were 0.166, 0.093, 0.094 and 0.125. On the other hand, Nei genetic distances among populations were all <0.03. Further analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) attributed most (93.5%) genetic diversity to within population variation. Principal coordinates analysis (PCA) did not group any population distinctively. This domesticated ginseng species still maintains a fair level of biodiversity and this conclusion is consistent with the local practice of non-selective collection of seeds for next season planting. There was no genetic drift in populations. Biodiversity of P notoginseng can be exploited to improve this important herb through breeding. Two possible strategies include inbreeding for pure lines and hybrid breeding with genetic divergent parents for hybrid vigor.

HPLC를 이용한 인삼, 홍삼, 산양산삼 및 홍산삼의 성분 비교 분석

Objectives The aim of this experiment is to provide an differentiation of ginseng, red ginseng, cultivated wild ginseng(CWG), and red wild ginseng(RWG) through component analysis using HPLC(High Performance Liquid Chromatography, hereafter HPLC). Methods Comparative analyses of ginsenoside , ginsenoside , and ginsenosides and of various ginsengs were conducted using HPLC. Results 1. CWG was relatively heat-resistant and showed slow change in color during the process of steaming and drying, compared to cultivated ginseng. 2. Ginsenoside was not detected in cultivated ginseng and CWG, whereas it was high in red ginseng and RWG. Ginsenoside was more generated in red ginseng than in RWG. 3. Ginsenoside appreared during steaming and drying of cultivated ginseng, whereas it was more increased during steaming and drying of CWG. 4. Ginsenoside content was more increased during steaming and drying of cultivated ginseng, whereas it was more decreased during steaming and drying of CWG. 5. Ginsenoside content was increased about 500% during steaming and drying of cultivated ginseng, whereas it was increased about 30% during steaming and drying of CWG, indicating that ginsenoside was more generated in red ginseng than in RWG. 6. Ginsenoside content was higher, whereas ginsenoside content was lower in 11th RWG than in 9th RWG, indicating that ginsenoside content was increased and content was decreased as steaming and drying continued to proceed. Ginsenoside and contents began to be increased, followed by decreased after 9th steaming and drying process. Conclusions Above experiment data can be an important indicator for the dentification of ginseng, red ginseng, CWG, and RWG. And the following studies will be need for making good product using CWG.

Differentiation of the root of Cultivated Ginseng, Mountain Cultivated Ginseng and Mountain Wild Ginseng using FT-IR and two-dimensional correlation IR spectroscopy

Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines. Based on the grown environments and the cultivate method, three kinds of ginseng, Cultivated Ginseng (CG), Mountain Cultivated Ginseng (MCG) and Mountain Wild Ginseng (MWG) are classified. A novel and scientific-oriented method was developed and established to discriminate and identify three kinds of ginseng using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), secondary derivative IR spectra and two-dimensional correlation infrared spectroscopy (2D-IR). The findings indicated that the relative contents of starch in the CG were more than that in MCG and MWG, while the relative contents of calcium oxalate and lipids in MWG were more than that in CG and MCG, and the relative contents of fatty acid in MCG were more than that in CG and MWG. The hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to data analysis of MWG, CG and MWG, which could be classified successfully. The results demonstrated the macroscopic IR fingerprint method, including FT-IR, secondary derivative IR and 2D-IR, can be applied to discriminate different ginsengs rapidly, effectively and non-destructively.

인삼, 한국 및 중국산 산양삼의 간 보호 효능에 관한 실험적 연구

Objectives : This study was aimed at investigating liver protection mechanism of Cultivated Ginseng and Cultivated Wild Ginseng of Korean and Chinese by inducing liver toxicity through and t-BHP in mice and evaluated serological findings. Methods : Experiment groups was categorized into untreated normal group, treated control group, and orally administered Cultivated Ginseng and Cultivated Wild Ginseng of Korean and Chinese experimental groups. At the termination of experiment, gross examination of the liver as well as Total bilirubin, AST, and ALT contents in the serum were evaluated. Results : 1. In the induced acute hepatotoxicity test, total bilirubin, AST and ALT didn`t show significant differences between the control and experimental groups. 2. In the t-BHP induced acute hepatotoxicity test, total bilirubin, AST and ALT didn`t show significant differences between the control and experimental groups. Conclusion : Taken together, Cultivated Ginseng and Cultivated Wild Ginseng of Korean and Chinese cannot be effectively used for recovering the liver functions in acute hepatotoxicity tests using and t-BHP. Further researches, for example treated long period, must be tried to verify the efficacies.

미국 화기삼의 종류별 생산방법과 경제성분석

The purpose of this study is classifying types of American ginseng and estimating their production cost and revenue by the types. Usually, the American ginseng can be classified as 4 different types; wild ginseng(WG), wild simulated ginseng(WSG), woods grown ginseng(WGG), and field cultivated ginseng(FCG). This paper estimates costs and benefits for FCG, WGG, and WSG per acre. The WGG & WSG are produced under the tree at mountain while the FCG is produced at large scale farm with machinery. Annual profit for the FCG is $2,222 while that of the WGG and the WSG are $2,759 and $3,799 per acre. Although quantity produced per acre for the WGG and WSG(600lbs and 160lbs) are much smaller than that of the FCG(3,000lbs), prices per pound for the WGG and WSG($125, 375$) are higher than that of the FCG($24). In addition, production costs for the WGG and WSG are lower than that of the FCG because of the costs for seeds, shadow facility, and chemicals are different by the types of production.

Antioxidant activities of cultivated and wild Korean ginseng leaves

Cultivated and wild ginseng leaves were examined for their various antioxidant activities. Both ginseng leaves were extracted with methanol and sequentially partitioned with solvents in an order of increasing polarity. Among various solvent extracts in cultivated and wild ginseng leaves, EtOAC extracts in both ginseng leaves showed the most powerful scavenging activities against DPPH radicals. Data on other antioxidant activities, measured by inhibition rates against lipid peroxidation and linoleate oxidation, revealed similar results, showing the highest activities in EtOAC extracts, followed by butanol, water, chloroform and hexane extracts, in both cultivated and wild ginseng leaves. EtOAC extracts of wild ginseng leaves contained more phenolics (9.71 g:4.87 g/100 g, dry basis) and flavonoids (3.03 g:2.34 g/100 g, dry basis) than cultivated ginseng leaves. When EtOAC extracts were acid-hydrolyzed, two aglycones of flavonoids, quercetin (0.43 and 0.66 g/100 g, dry basis) and kaempferol (1.23 and 1.50 g/100 g, dry basis) were detected in cultivated and wild ginseng leaves. These differences in concentrations of key antioxidants between two different ginseng leaves seemed to be responsible for their differences in antioxidant activities.

Wild ginseng prevents the onset of high-fat diet induced hyperglycemia and obesity in ICR mice.

Ginseng is a shade-loving perennial herb that is cultivated mainly in Korea, Japan, and China. The ginseng root has been used as a tonic remedy, and its antidiabetic activity has been demonstrated as early as 1920s. Although wild ginseng was anecdotally thought to be superior to cultivated ginseng as far as pharmacological properties were concerned, there have been no prior reports on the antidiabetic effect of wild ginseng. In this study, we investigated the preventative anti-diabetic and anti-obese effects of wild ginseng ethanol extract (WGEE). In the preventive experiment, WGEE co-administered with a high fat diet significantly inhibited body weight gain, fasting blood glucose, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels in a dose dependent manner. WGEE-treated mice at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg improved the insulin resistance index by 55% and 61% compared to the high fat diet (HFD) control, respectively. Diameters of white and brown adipocytes were also decreased by 62% and 46% in the WG500-treated group compared to those in HFD fed control mice. Taken together, WGEE has potential as a preventive agent for type 2 diabetes mellitus (and possibly obesity) and deserves clinical trial in the near future.

Ginseng Conservation Program in Russian Primorye:Genetic Structure of Wild and Cultivated Populations

“The Regional complex long-term program of restoration (reintroduction) of Primoryes ginseng population up to 2005” elaborated by Primorye governor administration, Regional Committee of Natural Resources and Russian Academy of Sciences operates in Russian Primorye. The Institute of Biology and Soil Science (IBSS) provides the scientific implementation of the program including the genetic analysis of extant ginseng populations, plant reproduction and off-spring identification. According to our investigations, the genetic resource of P. ginseng in Primorye is represented by three populations of wild-growing ginseng and a few pritate plantations. The results obtained by RAPD allowed concluding that the resource is dispersed among the wild and cultivated ginseng sub-populations in such a way that each of sub-populations studied has to be represented as a stock material to maintain species genetic variability. The allozyme analyses also showed that the small sub-populations of wild ginseng are characterized by unique genetic diversity and, therefore, they all need to be represented in reintroduction centers. Additionally the allozyme analysis discovered that the Blue Mountain and Khasan populations possess the most genetic diversity. So, at least one more reproductive ginseng unit has to be created besides two already existing reintroduction centers representing the Sikhote-Alin and the Blue Mountain populations.

The North American ginseng inflorescence: development, floret abscission zone, and the effect of ethylene

Characterization of the North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) inflorescence, the floret abscission zone, and its stimulation by ethylene were undertaken to gain insights into the potential for floret abscission induction as a replacement for the industry practice of expensive manual removal of the inflorescence. In each of 3 years, peduncle length of 3-year-old cultivated ginseng inflorescences increased rapidly in June, reaching maximal values of 140–180 mm. During this period, seed head diameter also increased to about 35 mm, while seed head fresh mass increased in July and August to 6.5–8.0 g. Flowering in 1996 and 1997 began in the last 2 weeks of June and lasted through July, with open flowers never exceeding 35%. Anatomical studies and manual dissection of 1- and 3-year-old perennating buds revealed development of the floral primordia first at their periphery and progressing centripetally. Stamen initials were seen as a pentamerous whorl just under the petal primordia, and the characteristic inferior ovary initiated as a slight depression at the centre of the floral meristem. Sections through 3-year-old inflorescences harvested on May 23, 1996, showed that distal floral apices had already formed constriction zones between the flower and the pedicel, indicating the position of the abscission zone. Length of time to ethylene-induced abscission zone formation was less than 24 h in 3-year-old ginseng harvested on July 23, 1997. The abscission threshold for ginseng berry drop was in the range of 10-100 µL·L–1 ethylene.Key words: anatomy, flowering, Panax quinquefolius, perennating bud.

Triterpene glycosides from wild and cultivated ginseng occurring in maritime territory: Chemical characterization, comparative quantitative analysis, and biological activity study

Triterpene glycosides from wild and cultivated ginseng occurring in maritime territory: Chemical characterization, comparative quantitative analysis, and biological activity study