Cultivated Blackberries Research Articles

Population structure of Blackberry yellow vein associated virus, an emerging crinivirus

Blackberry yellow vein disease (BYVD), a disorder caused by virus complexes, has become a major threat to fresh market blackberry production in the United States. Blackberry yellow vein associated virus (BYVaV) is the most prevalent virus in the BYVD complexes; detected in about 50% of samples exhibiting typical disease symptoms. Thirty-four virus isolates infecting wild and cultivated blackberries were collected from several areas with high BYVD incidence. Sequence variability and virus evolution predictions were calculated for four genomic regions coding for six proteins and accounting for about 30% of the virus genome. Nucleotide diversity ranged between 7 and 12%, and all proteins studied were under negative selection. Several isolates were identified as potential recombinants suggesting that recombination might be a driving force behind BYVaV evolution.

Molecular characterization of the Andean blackberry, Rubus glaucus, using SSR markers

The species Rubus glaucus, also known as the Andean or "Castilla" blackberry, is one of nine edible species of this genus that grow naturally in Central and South America. In Colombia, this species is the most important of all Rubus species for agricultural and commercial purposes. We used 20 SSRs developed for other Rubus species to characterize 44 Colombian R. glaucus genotypes, collected from eight different departments, and to look for molecular differences between thornless and thorny cultivated blackberries. Eighty-two bands were obtained from 28 loci. The genotypes were classified into eight populations, corresponding to collection sites. The mean number of polymorphic alleles per locus in all populations and genotypes ranged from 1.857 to 2.393. Samples collected from Valle del Cauca, Quindío, Caldas, and Risaralda departments had the highest heterozygosity values. The finding of exclusive bands from R. glaucus genotypes from Valle del Cauca, Quindío, and Caldas demonstrates genetic and molecular differentiation between thorny and thornless Andean blackberries.

Optimized scarification protocols improve germination of diverse Rubus germplasm

Seed collections of the wild relatives of cultivated blackberry and raspberry ( Rubus species) are maintained at the National Clonal Germplasm Repository, Corvallis, OR. Information on wild species germination requirements is rarely available, and germination may be poor or slow, making it difficult for scientists to use them for breeding improved cultivars. Eight diverse Rubus species in 6 of the 12 Rubus subgenera from seed stored at −20 °C for 1–23 years were studied. Seed weight, seed-coat thickness and hardness varied widely. Scarification with sulfuric acid (98% H 2SO 4) or sodium hypochlorite (14% NaOCl) was followed by germination treatments of deionized water (DI), smoke gas or a combination of gibberellic acid (2.03 mg/L GA 3) and potassium nitrate (34 mg/L KNO 3) during stratification. The commonly used scarification protocols were not effective for many species; but effective scarification exposure was established based on the amount of embryo damage seen with 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TZ) viability testing. H 2SO 4 scarification followed by a treatment with KNO 3 and GA 3 during stratification was highly effective for the most species. Two species in subgenus Anoplobatus had a hilar-end hole that allowed rapid germination of unscarified seed. Some species with extremely hard seed coats had little or no germination, and longer scarification times are suggested based on seed size, seed-coat thickness and hardness and viability testing.

Identification of Cyanidin 3-O-β-(6″-(3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaroyl)glucoside) and Other Anthocyanins from Wild and Cultivated Blackberries

Anthocyanins from blackberries are natural dietary pigments. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of anthocyanins in fruits of wild Norwegian blackberries and three blackberry ( Rubus fruticosus L.) cultivars and to report the complete identification of cyanidin 3-O-β-(6″-(3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaroyl)glucopyranoside), 5. This new pigment is most probably the same pigment that has previously been reported to occur in various blackberry samples as cyanidin 3-dioxalylglucoside. All of the examined blackberry samples contained in similar relative proportions the 3-glucoside (1), 3-rutinoside (2), 3-xyloside (3), and 3-O-β-(6″-malonylglucoside) (4) of cyanidin and 5. The absolute amounts of 1-5 in the wild Norwegian blackberries were 249, 18, 10, 24, and 22 mg of cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalents/100 g of fresh weight, respectively.

Genetic relationships among wild and cultivated blackberries (Rubus caucasicus L.) based on amplified fragment length polymorphism markers

Rubus is a large genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae. The blackberries, as well as various other Rubus species with mounding or rambling growth habits, are often called brambles. Little information is available on the genetic diversity of wild-grown blackberries. The objective of this study was to determine the genetic relationships among nine promising (high-yield capacity, free of pest and diseases, better fruit traits) wild blackberry (Rubus caucasicus L.) selections and the well-known cultivar, “Chester” by using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Genotypes were evaluated with three selective primer-enzyme combinations, producing a total of 223 AFLP fragments with 53% polymorphism ratio. Clustering of genotypes using unweighted pair-group method of arithmetic average cluster analysis clearly separated groups of wild blackberry genotypes while the variety “Chester” was clustered independently. Wild selections represented a distinct germplasm source on the basis of the estimated genetic distance among them. Genetic diversity data from this study will be helpful in using and exploiting the wild genetic material for breeding purposes as well as for further research.

Characterization of Anthocyanins and Proanthocyanidins in Wild and Domesticated Mexican Blackberries (Rubus spp.)

This study was designed to characterize and compare wild, commercial, and noncommercial cultivated blackberry genotypes grown in Michoacan, Mexico. Six genotypes, including WB-3, WB-7, WB-10, and WB-11 (all wild blackberry types), Tupy (a commercial cultivar), and UM-601 (a cultivated breeding line), were selected and profiled for anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins by separating extracts over Amberlite XAD-7 resin and Sephadex LH-20 columns. Subsequent high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) analyses revealed that the major anthocyanin for all genotypes was cyanidin 3-O-glucoside. The proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) were present in mono- to hexamer forms. Also, hydrolyzable tannins, ellagitannins, were characterized in the blackberry fruits. The average anthocyanin concentration in Sephadex LH-20 fractions was 49.2 mg/g in the commercial cultivar Tupy, while in the wild genotypes and the breeding line, the range was 361.3-494.9 mg/g (cyanidin 3-O-glucoside equivalent). The proanthocyanidin concentration varied widely among wild genotypes (417.5-1343.6 mg/g, catechin equivalent). This study demonstrated that the use of Amberlite XAD-7 followed by Sephadex LH-20 chromatography, with subsequent HPLC and LC-ESI-MS analyses, was able to effectively separate and characterize the diverse polyphenolics in blackberry genotypes. These results suggest that recommendations for dietary intake of blackberries for human health benefits need to take into account the source, because of the wide inherent variation in bioactive polyphenolic content in different blackberry genotypes.

Phragmidium violaceum newly reported to infect wild blackberries in Turkey

Turkey, situated between Asia and Europe, is a very important area for plant diversity. The rich biological diversity of Turkey, in particular for wild edible fruits including blackberries, is a result of the extreme variations in climate within a very small area and varying altitudes of the valleys, in which differences in elevation can reach up to 3,000 metres (Ercisli, 2004). Recently, wild blackberries have been growing as border plants around fruit orchards in Hatay province of Turkey. Blackberry cultivation started in the Marmara region several decades ago and has now been introduced as a new crop in Hatay and Adana provinces of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions (Kafkas et al., 2006). Consumption of fresh and frozen blackberries has increased in the past few years in Turkey. In search for alternative crops for farmers, blackberries have great potential as a crop of high market value. In late October 2008, rust-like symptoms were observed on approximately 25% of wild blackberry plants (Rubus fructicosus) in Belen, Samandag and Reyhanli districts of Hatay. Foliar symptoms included circular purplish leaf spots 1AE5–2 mm in diameter with yellow to tan centres on the upper leaf surface accompanied by cream to yellowish-orange uredinia on the lower surface. Urediniospores were globose or ellipsoid, 20–30 lm in diameter with 2AE5 lm thick walls. Cylindrical teliospores were dark brown and threeto five-celled. Three-celled teliospores excluding the papilla were 50–60 lm long by 25 to 30 lm wide, fourcelled teliospores were 70–75 lm long by 30 lm wide. Based on morphological characteristics, the rust fungus was identified as Phragmidium violaceum (Laundon & Rainbow, 1969). Blackberry rust was reported in Australia, Chile, Europe, Iran, Iraq, New Zealand, South Africa and USA on several species of Rubus (Farr et al., 2009) but this is the first report of rust caused by P. violaceum on wild blackberries in Turkey. The presence of the disease in wild blackberries has significant risk for cultivated blackberries in commercial orchards.

Antioxidant properties of blackberry and blueberry fruits grown in the Black Sea Region of Turkey

Seven wild and ten cultivated blackberries (Arapaho, Bartin, Black Satin, Bursa 1, Bursa 2, Cherokee, Chester, Jumbo, Navaho, and Ness), and six lowbush ( Vaccinium arctostaphylos) and four highbush ( Vaccinium corymbosum) blueberries fruits (Ivanhoe, Jersey, Northland, and Rekord) were analyzed for total anthocyanins, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity as ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) in this study. The respective ranges of total anthocyanin and total phenolic contents of the tested samples were: blackberries, 0.95–1.97 and 1.73–3.79 mg g −1 and blueberries, 0.18–2.94 and 0.77–5.42 mg g −1. FRAP values varied from 35.05 to 70.41 μmol g −1 for blackberries, 7.41 to 57.92 μmol g −1 for blueberries. Wild blackberries had the highest FRAP values while wild blueberries had the highest total phenolic and total anthocyanin contents. A linear relationship was observed between FRAP values and total phenolics for blueberries ( r = 0.981). The anthocyanin pigments in samples were isolated and characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV–visible detection. Cyn-3-glu was the predominant anthocyanin in all blackberry fruits.

A blackberry (Rubus L.) expressed sequence tag library for the development of simple sequence repeat markers

BackgroundThe recent development of novel repeat-fruiting types of blackberry (Rubus L.) cultivars, combined with a long history of morphological marker-assisted selection for thornlessness by blackberry breeders, has given rise to increased interest in using molecular markers to facilitate blackberry breeding. Yet no genetic maps, molecular markers, or even sequences exist specifically for cultivated blackberry. The purpose of this study is to begin development of these tools by generating and annotating the first blackberry expressed sequence tag (EST) library, designing primers from the ESTs to amplify regions containing simple sequence repeats (SSR), and testing the usefulness of a subset of the EST-SSRs with two blackberry cultivars.ResultsA cDNA library of 18,432 clones was generated from expanding leaf tissue of the cultivar Merton Thornless, a progenitor of many thornless commercial cultivars. Among the most abundantly expressed of the 3,000 genes annotated were those involved with energy, cell structure, and defense. From individual sequences containing SSRs, 673 primer pairs were designed. Of a randomly chosen set of 33 primer pairs tested with two blackberry cultivars, 10 detected an average of 1.9 polymorphic PCR products.ConclusionThis rate predicts that this library may yield as many as 940 SSR primer pairs detecting 1,786 polymorphisms. This may be sufficient to generate a genetic map that can be used to associate molecular markers with phenotypic traits, making possible molecular marker-assisted breeding to compliment existing morphological marker-assisted breeding in blackberry.

Total Content of Phenols and Anthocyanins in Edible Fruits from Bosnia

Content of total phenols and total anthocyanins was estimated in edible fruits from Bosnia by photometric methods. Cyanidin-3-galactoside chloride was used as a standard for determination of total anthocyanins, and galic acid served as a standard for determination of total phenols. Total content of phenols was 12.7 mg/g in elderberry fruits, 10.4 mg/g in bilberry, 9.8 mg/g in blackberry, 8.8 mg/g in wild cherry, 6.1 mg/g in cultivated blackberry, 3.5 mg/g in cultivated strawberry, 2.4 mg/g in average in sour cherry fruits from different locations and the lowest quantity of total phenols was in edible parts of melon, only 0.2 mg/g. Total content of anthocyanins was 6.8 mg/g in wild cherry, 6.7 mg/g in elderberry fruits and 4.5 mg/g in bilberry. Wild bilberry fruits from different locations had in average 3.5 mg/g, cherries from different locations 1.3 mg/g, cultivated blackberries 1.0 mg/g, cultivated strawberries 0.8 mg/g while melon fruit had no anthocyanins at all. Acidity was measured in macerate of edible fruits by direct insertion of electrode. pH values in the macerates were as follows: 3.03 in bilberry, 3.45 in blackberries, 3.59 in sour cherries, 3.92 in wild cherries, 4.44 in elderberries and 6.19 in melon.

Worldwide Blackberry Production

A survey of worldwide blackberry (Rubus spp.) production was conducted in 2005. Results indicated there were an estimated 20,035 ha of blackberries planted and commercially cultivated worldwide, a 45% increase from 1995. Wild blackberries still make a significant contribution to worldwide production, with 8000 ha and 13,460 Mg harvested in 2004. There were 7692 ha of commercially cultivated blackberries in Europe, 7159 ha in North America, 1640 ha in Central America, 1597 ha in South America, 297 ha in Oceania, and 100 ha in Africa. Worldwide production of cultivated blackberries was 140,292 Mg in 2005. Of the blackberry area worldwide, 50% was planted to semierect cultivars, 25% to erect, and 25% to trailing types. ‘Thornfree’, ‘Loch Ness’, and ‘Chester Thornless’ were the most important semierect types, and ‘Brazos’ and ‘Marion’ the most common erect and trailing types, respectively. In general, erect and semierect cultivars are grown for fresh market and trailing cultivars for processing. Fresh fruit are usually picked into the final container in the field, whereas 75% of trailing blackberries for processing are picked by machine. Common production problems are reported. Production systems for field-grown blackberry differ with type grown and region. For example, in Mexico, production systems are modified to extend the production season for ‘Tupy’ and other erect-type cultivars from mid-October to June. Organic blackberry production is expected to increase from the 2528 ha planted in 2005. An estimated 315 ha of blackberries were grown under tunnels, mainly to protect against adverse weather and target high-priced markets. Based on this survey, there may be 27,032 ha of commercial blackberries planted worldwide in 2015, not including production from harvested wild plants.

Dynamics of Rubus ulmifolius Schott var. anoplothyrsus Sudre and other cultivated blackberries in Italy

In Italy, the following important blackberries are cultivated: Rubus ulmifolius, R. armeniacus and R. laciniatus. Italy is proposed as a possible place of origin of R. ulmifolius and its spineless race var. anoplothyrsus. The other two species are introduced. All of them show a characteristic differentiation and migration.

Fungi Occurring on Aerial Constituents of Cultivated Blackberry ( Rubus fruticosus L.) in Norway

Cultivated blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) was recently introduced in Norway, and most plantings were established in the 1990's. Many of these plantings died back or had severe damage on leaves and stems. Plant pathogens incombination with frost injury were suspected to be the cause of the damage. In 1998-99, field and greenhouse plantings of blackberry were surveyed for the occurrence of plant pathogenic and saprophytic fungi. A total of 33 different fungi were identified in 18 cultivars from 23 plantings (19 field and 4 greenhouse). Of these, 12 were pathogenic fungi, while 21 were non-pathogenic, secondary invaders. The most important pathogens on the canes were (common name in parenthesis) Septocyta ruborum (Purple blotch), Gnomonia rubi (Gnomonia canker) and Sydowiella depressula (Sydowiella canker). Pathogenic fungi of less importance on the canes were Elsinoe veneta (Anthracnose) and Coniothyrium fuckelii (Cane blight). Peronospora sparsa (Downy mildew) was the most important fungus attacking leaves. On fruits Botrytis cinerea (Grey mould) was the most prevalent pathogen. Cladosporium spp. (Cladosporium rot) and Penicillium spp. (Blue mould) were frequently observed on fruits, but did not seem to be of significant importance. Other minor fruit rots were due to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Bitter rot) and Mucor sp. (Mucor rot). Phragmidium violaceum (Blackberry rust) was found on canes and leaves, but was of minor importance. G. rubi and S. depressula caused damage mostly in the thornless cultivars, and P. sparsa was found almost exclusively in the thornless cultivar 'Loch Ness'. Both thorny and thornless cultivars were damaged by S. ruborum. In greenhouses the major fungal problem was B. cinerea.

Fungi Occurring on Aerial Constituents of Cultivated Blackberry ( Rubus fruticosus L.) in Norway

Fungi Occurring on Aerial Constituents of Cultivated Blackberry ( Rubus fruticosus L.) in Norway

First Report of Cephaleuros virescens in Arkansas and Its Occurrence on Cultivated Blackberry in Arkansas and Louisiana.

Blackberry (Rubus sp.) cane samples (cultivar Navaho) showing disease symptoms were collected from a commercial grower in Texarkana, AR, and sent for diagnosis to the plant disease clinic in Lonoke in June, 1997. Cane symptoms consisted of stem cracking, tissue discoloration beneath the bark, and the presence of an orange, velvetlike growth that was identified as sporangiophores and sporangia of the parasitic green alga Cephaleuros virescens Kunze. Zoospores were released when sporangia were placed in water drops. The alga was isolated from infected canes on potato dextrose agar, but pathogenicity tests were not attempted because pathogenicity has never been demonstrated successfully, nor have zoospores been produced in culture. C. virescens also was found infecting cultivated blackberry at the Louisiana Calhoun Research Station, where it occurred more commonly on thornless than on thorned type cultivars. This parasitic alga occurs commonly along the U.S. Gulf Coast and has been recorded on 287 plant species and cultivars, including 80 that are subject to stem infections (1,2). The occurrence of C. virescens in Arkansas extends its known northernmost range from 32.5°N to 33.5°N in the U.S. This is the first report on the occurrence of C. virescens in Arkansas and the first report of its occurrence on cultivated, commercially grown blackberry.

Separation of three Rubus‐feeding species of aphid — Sitobion fragariae (Wlk.), Macrosiphum funestum (Macch.) and Amphorophora rubi (Kalt.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) — by electrophoresis

SummaryFour species of aphid infest wild and cultivated blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg., R. lachiatus, etc) and other Rubus species in Britain and Continental Europe, ‐ Sitobion fragariae (Walker), Macrosiphum funestum (Macchiati), Amphorophora rubi (Kaltenbach) and Aphis ruborurn (Bösrner). The nymphs, especially the early instars, of the first three species are fairly difficult to differentiate morphologically. However, they can clearly be separated using electrophoresis. The present paper describes diagnostic enzyme/isoenzyme banding patterns which allow differentiation of the first three species as apterous and alate adults and their instars using two enzymes ‐ carboxylesterase (EST) and phosphatase (PHOS).

De bramestengelboorder,Hartigia nigra (Hymenoptera, Cephidae), in cultuurbramen

The nativeHartigia nigra Harris, has been found recently in cultivated blackberries near Biezelinge (Zeeland), but is not of economic importance.

A Synopsis of the American Species of Scolioneurinae.

The European species of this subfamily were originally referred to the genus Blennocampa . Konow in 1886 removed one of the species from Blennocampa under the generic name of Entodecta and in 1890 the remaining species under the name of Scolioneura . These genera, he has associated with Blennocampa and its allies under the tribal name of Blennocampides1 in his last analysis of the group. The first American species was described by Norton in 1867 as Selandria capitalis , later, 1895, referred to Scolioneura by Marlatt2 and two new species described. S. A. Forbes3 in 1885 described Metallus rubi from two male specimens bred from larvae mining in the leaves of cultivated blackberries. This species was referred to the genus Fenusa by Cresson4 in 1887 as a possible variety of Fenusa curta Nort. Konow in the Genera Insectorum, evidently on the authority of Cresson, makes Metallus a synonym of Fenusa and adopts rubi as a good species. An examination of Forbes’s type proves it to belong to the Scolioneurinae. Since Metallus antedates both Entodecta and Scolioncura , if it should be found later that only two generic names can be retained in this subfamily, Metallus will have to be used for one of them. A fifth species was added by Kincaid5 in 1900 from Alaska under the name of Fenusa alaskana , a species of Entodecta . Finally a sixth species was described by Konow6, Entodecta humilis , from Alaska in 1908. The present writer in 19067 separated Scolioneura and Entodecta from the Blennocampides as a distinct subfamily, based on the divergent condition of the medio-cubital cross-vein and the free part of M3+4 in the front wings and from the Fenusinae, another small group of genera included in the Blennocampides by Konow, by the form of the cell R1+2 of the hind wings. The cell R1+2 being closed throughout and appendiculate at apex and with vein R3 reaching the margin of the wing distinctly before the apex in the Scolioneurinae and the cell R1+2 rounded at apex and open and the vein R3 reaching the margin of the wing at or beyond the apex in the Fenusinae.