Cultural Buildings Research Articles

Chalcolithic settlement of Bahra 1 and its possible functions

Excavations of the Kuwaiti–Polish Archaeological Mission at the site of Bahra 1 in Kuwait uncovered the remains of a large settlement from the sixth millennium BC, associated with the Mesopotamian Ubaid culture. This connection is made clear by the presence of Ubaid Ware from the Ubaid 2/3 phase that appears alongside Red Coarse Ware typical for the Arabian Neolithic. Architecture of the settlement resembled the Ubaid one with orthogonal, multi‐chambered houses. In one part of the site they form a dense block with traits that indicate some degree of spatial planning. This type of spatial arrangement is absent in Arabian Neolithic settlements and is also unknown from Ubaid settlements in Mesopotamia. One of the buildings discovered at Bahra 1 has a ground plan reminiscent of a sanctuary from Eridu XVI and was probably associated with cultic activities, as was a circular stone enclosure (Unit 6), representing local building traditions. The character of Bahra 1 architecture and the presence of cultic buildings at the site suggest that the settlements served as a local ceremonial and/or cultic centre.

Aproximación al programa iconográfico y la función de los Templos de Millones de Años: el caso de estudio delHeneket-Ankh de Tutmosis III (Luxor, Egipto)

Los Templos de Millones de Años, un tipo de edificio de culto que tuvo su apogeo durante el Reino Nuevo Egipcio, estaban destinados al culto del rey soberano y del Dios que acogía, esencialmente Amón-Ra. Encarnaban la simbiosis del rey y la divinidad y la eterna regeneración del poder real. En este sentido, si bien su arquitectura y programa decorativo podían ser parecidos al de otros templos propiamente “divinos”, estos debían manifestar una serie de patrones que marcaban las funciones que los hacía únicos. El Heneket-Ankh de Tutmosis III, situado en la orilla oeste de Tebas, es uno de aquellos Templos de Millones de Años. Su decoración ha sido objeto reciente de estudio y permite contribuir al conocimiento que tenemos de este tipo de templos, así como de su programa decorativo y simbólico.

Built Cultural Heritage Recording and Evaluation in the Traditional Settlement of Siatista in Greece: Functional and Institutional Proposals for Conservation

This case report explores the town of Siatista (located in the Western Macedonia Region—Greece), which is designated as a “traditional settlement”. The paper argues that, despite the relevant legislation that designated 400 settlements in Greece as “traditional settlements” and put them under protection, Siatista has no delimited traditional section. Through the years, new house typologies, demolitions, and alterations of its urban form have appeared, and Siatista has lost its identity. Having as an ultimate goal to identify proper planning guidelines and regulations for the preservation of Siatista’s built heritage, the methodology used in the paper includes the following steps: (a) recording and codification of the key legislation for the protection of Siatista, including the official urban plans (and their revisions); (b) identification and mapping of the urban form and spatial characteristics of Siatista (existing land uses, house typology, etc.); (c) identification of the alterations of the urban form and the demolitions, mainly with the use of aerial photos (1960–2014); and (d) creation of a map presenting the remaining built heritage per degree of evaluation. Following the analysis of the existing situation and the identification of the key challenges, the paper ends by defining and delimitating the well-preserved section of the town (proposing stricter rules and regulations for its preservation).

The Development of the Catholic Cathedral Building-type at Bishoprics’ Towns on the Baltic Sea Southern Coast during the 13th – 14th Centuries

The oldest Catholic cathedral is the five-nave Archbasilica of St. John in Lateran erected in Rome, but the Lateran Palace (Latin: Palatium Apostolicum Lateranense) was given as a present to Bishop (Latin: episcopus) of Rome for his residence (from 4th until 14th cent.). The perimeter building set up the structural complex of L-shaped layout where the Lateran Castle and the Archbasilica were included. In Western Europe largest cities were also archbishoprics’ centres, in which neighbourhood Catholic church-states, or bishoprics were founded. Local conditions and relationships between the ruler and inhabitants determined the development of Christianity centres. Its main structural objects included in the fortified building complex were the Catholic cathedral which altarpiece (Latin: presbyterium) by the main altar was turned toward the east facing the rising sun, headquarters of the Canonical Chapter (German: Domkapitel) and Bishop's strong fortified residence resembled a lower tower, or a palace separated from the town, or built outside the town. In the late 12th century, bishoprics began to establish on the Baltic Sea southern coast at subjugated lands of the Balts and the Baltic Finns. At bishoprics’ centres Bishops’ fortified yards (German: der Bischofshof) were formed. A housing combined with a sacral structure was included in the perimeter building around the spacious court and integrated into the unified defensive system of the structural complex. In Riga, the Germans established centres of secular and spiritual power, as well as the main military economic base for the Baltics’ expansion. The political and economic dualism was created. The representation of civil authority became the third alternative force. Each of centres characterized by its own structural elements. The main cult building for city inhabitants was the church of citizen’s parish. Research problem: the development of the Catholic cathedral building-type in bishoprics’ towns on the southern bank of the Baltic Sea during the 13th – 14th centuries has been studied insufficiently. Research topicality: the impact of cathedral building complexes on formation of medieval urban structures on the Baltic Sea south coastal lands during the 13th – 14th centuries. Research goal: analysis of the structure and layout of Catholic cathedrals in Livonia and the Prussians’ lands to determine common and diverse features. Research novelty: evolution of the layout and structure of Catholic cathedrals on lands inhabited by the Baltic ethnic groups have been analysed in regional and European context. Results: study formation of the Catholic cathedrals’ layout and structure on the Baltic Sea south coastal lands during the 13th – 14th centuries. Main methods: inspection of cathedrals in nature, analysis of archive documents, projects, cartographic materials.

Морфология на съвременното сакрално пространство (Skyspace Lech, Writ in water)

The social and political changes in the world dictate new approach and interpretation of the essence of architecture and its unbreakable unity with nature. In my dissertation “Ancient cult buildings and their contemporary architectural analogues” I discuss the necessity of a reconsideration of the term “contemporary sacral space” and propose a definition that is in correspondence with the changed social environment. In my research I have noticed and described a pattern in the design of the sacral spaces that applies architectural models from the ancient cult buildings and creates atmosphere that inspires the connection with Nature. My arguments are based on architectural examples built in the last two decades, as well as on the recent works of scholars, that make obvious the inevitability of considering the contemporary sacral space outside the dogmas of the religions, but rather in conformity with the modern man. This article is a part of series of studies, entitled “Morphology of the contemporary sacral space”. The purpose of the research is to organize and analyze a group of contemporary spaces, selected by their objective characteristics (situation; purpose; composition; materials; facades; interior) to prove the above mentioned tendency in the contemporary sacral architecture, and to define a wider frame for the term “contemporary sacral space”. In this article I analyze the architecture of two buildings – SKYSPACE Lech and WRIT IN WATER, to recognize them as contemporary sacral spaces.

New approaches for exploring cult buildings: to the issue of introducing energy assessments into a comprehensive research method

This paper deals with the subject of new methods in the study of objects of cult purposes. In author`s opinion data, collected from natural, humanitarian and technical sciences, makes possible introducing additional research parameters into historical research. Integrated approach used in the study of monuments of the past takes into account cartographic, topographical, landscape and other aspects, but ignores their energy impact on the environment. Author suggests using data on energy impact of buildings along with general criterions for some particular historical and cultural studies.

Israelite Temples: Where Was Israelite Cult Not Practiced, and Why

Most scholars in the late 20th and early 21st century believed that cultic activity in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah was practiced in various temples that were scattered throughout the kingdoms. Still, a detailed study of the archaeological evidence on Israelite cult reveals that Israelite cultic buildings were extremely rare, both in absolute terms and when compared to other ancient Near Eastern societies, suggesting that cultic activity in temples was the exception rather than the norm and that typical Israelite cult was practiced in the household and in other, non-temple settings. Hence, the evidence suggests that rather than viewing temples, like the one in Arad, as exemplifying typical cultic activity, they should be viewed as exceptions that require a special explanation. The first part of the article develops and updates the suggestion, first raised about ten years ago, that Israelite temples were indeed extremely rare. Given the ancient Near Eastern context, however, such practices seems to be exceptional, and the second part of the article will therefore explain why was such a unique pattern not identified in the past, and will suggest a possible explanation as to how was such an outstanding practice developed and adopted.

Interlocking Networks and the Sacred Landscape of Hellenistic Northern Etruria: Capturing Social and Geographic Entanglement Through Social Network Analysis

Abstract The late Hellenistic period is a time of deep entanglement, interconnectedness and complexity. The breakdown of local political systems and the unification of economic spaces had strong repercussions on the perception and expression of several aspects of the cultural identities of local communities. Rapid waves of change can be observed in local religious identities and in the Etruscan sacred landscape: cult buildings were destroyed, sacred places abandoned or replaced by residential areas, and new organisational forms of managing cults appeared; Latin names and new iconographies were given to traditional deities in public religious buildings dedicated to the official religion, while private and popular worshipping polarized around salvation cults. Changes in the sacred landscape regarded both topographic aspects, such as the visibility of cult sites and their connections to settlements, as well as social aspects, such as the patronage of sacred buildings. This paper proposes to employ a relational approach in order to understand changes in the sacred landscape. It analyzes the geographic and social components of the Etruscan sacred landscape by means of Social Network Analysis (SNA), and it does so by looking at the landscape in its entanglement to the archaeological and epigraphic record between 350 and 80 BCE.

Specific Features of Historical Structures of Buildings and Road Facilities in Bulgaria in 19th and In the Beginning of 20th Century

The aim of the study is an analysis of some constructive systems in Bulgarian architecture in 19th century and in the beginning of 20th century. In the historical development of Bulgaria this is the time of changes in all areas of life. The period is connected with the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Era and the perception of the changes brought about by the industrial development in Europe. The wooden and steel constructions used in cult and public buildings and facilities have been explored. The use of different types of materials for these structures is related to the functions of the facilities, their social and industrial significance. In the course of the study, the hypothesis of the unity of the construction system and its relation to the terrain is confirmed. The unity of the construction system is considered as a significant problem, because builders during this period follow the local historical tradition and good knowledge of the craft. Following the tradition they work with historic, traditional materials such as wood and stone. The change with the constructions and the materials comes with the liberation of the Bulgaria in 1878. At that time an accelerated development of industrial production began. The active construction of buildings and road facilities is connected with steel structures of prefabricated elements. Often, they also come into use due to the compromised peculiarities of the terrain. In the study in chronological order were analyzed cult buildings with brick massive constructions, with wooden constructions and industrial steel structures. A cult building rare for the Bulgarian architecture, such as the church in Istanbul, is accented. It is assembled from pre-fabricated steel profiles in order to be reversible, portable and easily replaceable structural elements.

The Architectural Appearance of the Cult Buildings Ensemble in the Village of Purekh in the Chkalovsky District of Nizhny Novgorod Region

The architectural image of the village of Purekh in the Chkalovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod region is considered. Its spatial structure is formed by a system of dominants consisting of a different ensemble of religious buildings, stone churches: Preobrazhenskaya (XVII century), Dukhovskaya (1904), Nikolskaya (1864), Nativity of the Virgin (1854) on the historical Lenin street - the compositional axis of the village, and low-rise rural estate development. The degree of preservation of the historical and urban environment of Purekh is high, the metrorhythmic composition of Lenin Street is an example of the morphotypic preservation of fragments of the Russian village architectural environment of the beginning of the 20th century, the compositional center of which is formed by the elements of the religious buildings ensemble.
 The comprehensive analysis of the architectural appearance of the Purekh religious buildings ensemble included: an assessment of the village town planning layout taking into account thelandscape; thelocation of church buildings in the structure of the settlement, their interaction with each other, the hierarchy in the compositional and artistic decision of the ensemble, the definition of dominance visibility basins, the main panoramas, the silhouette of religious buildings, the morphotypes of background buildings; history, features of location, spatial planning decisions, stylistics, decor of each monument. The study introduces data on the religious buildings of Purekh, monuments of the 17th - early 20th centuries, into scientific usage on the basis of analysis of archival, design, literary and other sources, photo-fixation of objects, and their graphic reconstruction. Results can form the basis of documents for the reconstruction and restoration of objects, which will increase the attractiveness of Purekh for residents, tourists and investors.

Water and cults in Nuragic Sardinia

Nuragic Sardinia is the only Italian region where later prehistoric standing monuments identified specifically as cult buildings have survived. In fact, the many monumental cult complexes, built during the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, which were often related to rituals that implied the use of water, are the most visible expressions of Nuragic religious behaviors. The most common category is undoubtedly that directly linked to water cult activity, sacred wells, and springs, architectural features that give access to surface water or underground aquifers. The variety of monuments attested is particularly rich and varied, including not only sacred wells and springs but also rectangular‐plan buildings (so‐called megaron temples), straight and curvilinear plan buildings, and purely circular ones, with or without vats. Water sanctuaries are the places where Nuragic religiosity was performed and the power and wealth of Nuragic communities, were shown through the monumentality of structures, the elaborate stone decorations, and the presence of exclusive built‐in stone furniture and votive offerings. In fact, these sanctuaries are complexes articulated in structures of different types and sizes where large amounts of wealth, mainly tools, ornaments, weapons, and bronze figurines were accumulated as offerings.This article is categorized under: Human Water > Water as Imagined and Represented

A Moabite sanctuary at Khirbat Ataruz, Jordan: stratigraphy, findings, and archaeological implications

The excavations of Khirbat Ataruz in central Jordan revealed a small cult building, with a portable stone altar with Moabite inscriptions on the body. This article concentrates on the stratigraphy and the analysis of building and vessel finds, most published here for the first time, associated with the inscription and sanctuary room. The building, dated to the mid/late 9th–early 8th centuries BCE, was constructed directly on top of earlier architecture, with substantive modification that is connected to the Iron IIA temple complex at the acropolis. This construction activity might relate to the story of a Moabite war against the ancient city of Ataroth mentioned in the Mesha Stele. Accordingly, the study of stratigraphic, ceramic and architectural evidence linked to the sanctuary and inscription offers a rare possibility to enhance our understanding of historical and archaeological issues related to the Moabites and the Mesha Stele.

Reuniting the waters, separating the lands. Windows and liminality in late antique baptism.

Starting from the paradoxical presence of windows on late antique baptisteries used at night, the paper considers the effect windows of cultic buildings had in the period. Drawing on late antique d...

Il Tempio II del Santuario di Giove sul Pfaffenberg/Carnuntum

Among the cult buildings uncovered at the Pfaffenberg mountain sanctuary, Temple II (Groller “building S”) differs distinctly from the other two Jupiter temples (Temple I/Groller “building C” and Temple III) in its layout and large dimensions. The building was already associated with the worship of the Capitoline Triad by the ancient historian E. Bormann, and has been identified as the “Capitol”. During the most recent investigations, two building phases were identified: The evidence indicated that construction phase I was precisely designed as a Tuscan temple, according to the rules of Vitruvius. Thus, the masonry of the older construction phase revealed the rectangular layout of a building consisting of a cella, two rectangular wings, and four columns in the pronaos; this structure is dated to Hadrian’s time. During construction phase II, the building was expanded by the addition of a porticus and two ancillary rooms, while the Phase I building was converted into a spacious cella with platforms on either side. These changes probably occurred around 200 AD. The interpretation of this structure as a temple dedicated to an “oriental” or Near Eastern deity (such as Mithras, or Jupiter Dolichenus), however, could not be confirmed.

Un nuevo complejo religioso de época imperial en Colonia Patricia. El recinto de culto de c. Tejón y Marín 14 (Córdoba)

En este artículo damos a conocer un complejo cultual romano descubierto hace unos años en Córdoba y que, hasta la fecha, ha permanecido inédito. Gracias a la revisión y al estudio crítico de la documentación disponible, hemos podido identificar un recinto sacro público o semipúblico levantado a finales del siglo I a.C. a escasa distancia de la muralla, y que con posterioridad (segunda mitad del siglo I d.C.) fue reformado puntualmente. Se trata de uno de los escasos recintos religiosos urbanos intramuros (al margen de los fora) documentados arqueológicamente hasta la fecha en Hispania, y además uno de los más antiguos. Dicha circunstancia ha motivado un estudio en el que hemos profundizado en aspectos como su inserción topográfica y su caracterización arquitectónica. Asimismo, también hemos optado por examinar su proceso de abandono (siglo IV) y su posterior reocupación funeraria y doméstica (siglos IV-VI), contextualizando la información disponible a escala local y supralocal con el fin de proporcionar una imagen lo más completa posible.

ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF SHEKI: STUDY, PRESERVATION AND ADAPTATION

Sheki is one of the most picturesque and ancient towns of Azerbaijan. It is one of the mostly visited towns in the country because of the great number of architectural monuments preserved up to now from different historical stages. There are fortresses, mosques and churches, civil erections etc. But historically established, traditional image of Sheki dwelling house with a deep verandah – eyvan, bright tiled roofing and the mixed masonry from the brick and river stone build up an image of Sheki. Mostly interesting architectural monuments are placed in architectural - historical preserve Yukhary Bash-The upper part: house of Shakikhanovs, a minaret of Gileyli mosque, a mosque and a grave, a round temple, fortress, upper and lower Caravanserais and famouse Palace of Sheki Khans. Architectural monuments of Sheki are in different preservation state, some of them are under restoration now, but many of them still should be studied and explored. High rate of town development in the modern stage can destroy monuments and their historical appearance if not creating necessary conditions for preservation. The analysis of the above-listed architectural monuments, which form an insignificant part of the architectural heritage of the town infers that throughout its century-long history, the town of Sheki, silkworm breeding and commercial center of Azerbaijan, has not lost ancient traditions of popular construction which found the parallels in numerous public and cult buildings, palace structures and residential houses. Surviving buildings are illustrative of the highest engineering mastery, skilful use of local building materials, and peculiar methods of architectural design. This ancient land, located in the wonderful region of Azerbaijan, attracting numerous tourists from all over the world, is sure to be inscribed on international tourist itineraries. The main task now is to preserve the historical environment of Sheki, and protect it against any negative effects of contemporary development processes Thus, our major mission is to preserve century-old architectural-artistic national wealth and pass it over to the future generations. Study of the monument’s architectural peculiarities and their preservation state, as well as ways of preservation of single monuments and town integrity are under investigation in the given article.

Anciennes recherches, nouvelles considérations sur la crypte repérée dans le périmètre de la rue Karl Marx à Constanța

La începutul anilor 1980, în cursul unor lucrări de sistematizare urbană desfășurate în perimetrul fostei străzi K. Marx (astăzi strada Revoluției din 22 Decembrie 1989), au fost identificate vestigiile unui edificiu de cult creștin. Intervenția antropică brutală, realizată cu mijloace mecanice, a condus la distrugerea cvasi-totală a zidurilor perimetrale de sud și de vest ale monumentului creștin, a pavimentului său realizat din cărămidă, dar și la afectarea parțială a criptei pentru relicve aflate sub nivelul sanctuarului. Cu toate acestea, planul și detaliile constructive privind cripta au putut fi reconstituite cu destulă acuratețe. Pe baza datelor disponibile (reunite în contribuția lui Rădulescu, Lungu din 1989, precum și a clișeelor păstrate în arhiva fotografică a MINA Constanța), autorii își propun să redeschidă dosarul arheologic al acestei descoperiri, rediscutând contextul arheologic, precum și flaconul-relicvar din sticlă descoperit intact în absidiola estică a criptei. Vor fi, de asemenea, avute în vedere detalii privind tehnica de construcție a criptei, decorația murală, cu privire specială asupra flaconului lenticular din sticlă, sigilat practic în absidiola estică a dispozitivului pentru conservarea moaștelor. Acest obiect, unic în peisajul religios de la Tomis, oferă informații suplimentare despre modul de venerare, accesibilitatea și contextul depunerii relicvelor în Scythia și oferă noi chei de lectură a acestor resturi sfinte în monumentele creștine din capitala religioasă a provinciei.

The World's Oldest Temples in Göbekli Tepe and Nevali Çori, Turkey in the Light of Studies in Ontogenesis of Architecture

The paper is a presentation of research in Ontogenesis of ArchitectureiiGeneral foundations of this field of studies, introduced by the author, are presented in the book: Tobolczyk, M.,2008, “The Birth of Architecture. Introduction to the Ontogenesis of Architecture”, Urban International Press, New Castle, In press; and in Tobolczyk, M.,2000, “Narodziny Architektury. Wstęp do Ontogenezy Architektury”, PWN, Warszawa. This new field of studies within Theory of Architecture aims to formulate general rules which govern evolutionary processes in architecture. A special attention is paid to prehistoric settlements of the Near East, where during the Neolithic revolution (10th -8th millennium BC.) remarkable changes occurred in the art of building. Along with a man's increased ability to think in symbolic and abstractive terms various primordial forms of architecture were generated. One of the essential issues to explore is the genesis and evolution of archetypal forms of Neolithic communal/cult buildings. The purpose of the presented research is to reveal some evolutionary phenomena which determined the spatial organization of the world's oldest antecedent of a temple serving ritual and gathering purposes. This study, which is based on the comparison of structures excavated in three important prehistoric sites located near Şanliurfa in south-eastern Turkey: Göbekli Tepe (10th - 8th millennium B.C.), Nevali Çori (dated to 9th - 8th millennium B.C.) and Çayönü, can explain the origins of the oldest roofed temple. The principal result is explanation of the general rules of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic architectural order, which was used in spatial organization of the communal/cult building in the Southeastern Anatolia Region. The major conclusion is revealing the succeeding stages of evolution from ritual centres in open landscape to roofed cult buildings, which signify the transition from society of hunting-gatherers’ to agriculture based community.

Kultberget på Stora Holm

Tuve 46 was a complex monument, a hillock which people have taken the trouble to cover with stones. Among the stones were graves, mounds of burnt stones, a special mound of stones at the highest point, a cult building and on one side of the hillock were post-holes, hearths, cooking-pits and the like. On the hillock were also several concentrations of flint flakes and a few broken or unfinished flint tools. The site has mainly been used during two periods of time, one is the late Neolithic, the other is the Bronze Ageand Early Iron Age.
 The concentrations of flint flakes are interpreted as residuals of tool manufacturing. It seems most of them were manufactured elsewhere, though. Only one or two were made at the place where the flints were found. The stone-covered hillock with its different constructions is interpreted as a cult site with a possible ‘Harg’ at the top.

ŞANLIURFA BÖLGESİNDE "T" ŞEKLİNDE DİKMETAŞ BULUNAN YERLEŞİMLERİN FARKLILIK VE BENZERLİKLERİ

This article refers to the Neolithic Period settlements discovered during surveys and provincial cultural inventory studies conducted in Sanliurfa province located in Southeast Turkey. The locations and dimensions of the settlements that contain T shaped pillars is one of the main discussion topics of this study. Another matter under discussion is to comprehend the differences between the small-scale settlements that contain cult centers and T shaped pillars. The fact that two of the settlements under study contain both the remains of circular domestic buildings and the pil­lars indicate that such settlements resemble Cayonu and Nevali Cori settlements, which contain cult and domestic buildings. It is contemplated that such settlements are contemporary with Gobekli Tepe layer II and the cult building known from Nevali Cori based on the similarities and differences of the T shaped pillars, identified in some of the recently discovered settlements. In the light of the finds unearthed from the settlements in Sanliurfa region that conta­in T shaped pillars, such settlements should be dated to the end of Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (LPPNA) and the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (EPPNB).