Crystal Thickness Research Articles

Dynamics of self-hybridized exciton–polaritons in 2D halide perovskites

Excitons, bound electron–hole pairs, in two-dimensional hybrid organic inorganic perovskites (2D HOIPs) are capable of forming hybrid light-matter states known as exciton-polaritons (E–Ps) when the excitonic medium is confined in an optical cavity. In the case of 2D HOIPs, they can self-hybridize into E–Ps at specific thicknesses of the HOIP crystals that form a resonant optical cavity with the excitons. However, the fundamental properties of these self-hybridized E–Ps in 2D HOIPs, including their role in ultrafast energy and/or charge transfer at interfaces, remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that >0.5 µm thick 2D HOIP crystals on Au substrates are capable of supporting multiple-orders of self-hybridized E–P modes. These E–Ps have high Q factors (>100) and modulate the optical dispersion for the crystal to enhance sub-gap absorption and emission. Through varying excitation energy and ultrafast measurements, we also confirm energy transfer from higher energy E–Ps to lower energy E–Ps. Finally, we also demonstrate that E–Ps are capable of charge transport and transfer at interfaces. Our findings provide new insights into charge and energy transfer in E–Ps opening new opportunities towards their manipulation for polaritonic devices.

Polarization Based Out-Coupling for Cavity Based X-ray FELs

Cavity Based X-ray Free-Electron Lasers (CBXFELs) promise fully 3D coherent, very brilliant and shot-to-shot stable X-ray pulses. For CBXFELs the X-ray radiation is trapped in an X-ray optical cavity, which is formed using Bragg-reflecting crystal mirrors. As is the case for laser systems in the optical regime, a major question for the CBXFELs is how to couple out the radiation from the cavity. Possibilities range from employing semi-transparent thin crystals, over manipulation of the electron phase space density to cavity dumping schemes. In this work, making use of the strong polarization of Bragg reflection shall be studied for out-coupling. As the radiation does not change its polarization during Bragg reflection, reflection in the direction of the polarization vector is suppressed. By adjusting the 3D orientation of the crystals with respect to the polarization axis of a linearly polarized undulator, or vice versa, the transmission through the crystals can be tailored to some degree independently of the crystal thickness.

Optical Photon Propagation Characteristics and Thickness Optimization of LaCl3:Ce and LaBr3:Ce Crystal Scintillators for Nuclear Medicine Imaging

The present study focuses on the determination of the optimal crystal thickness of LaCl3:Ce and LaBr3:Ce crystal scintillators for Nuclear Medicine Imaging applications. A theoretical model was applied for the estimation of the optical efficiency of the two single-crystal scintillators in terms of Detector Optical Gain (DOG). The theoretical model was validated against the experimental values of the Absolute Efficiency (AE) of the two crystals, obtained in the energy range 110 kVp–140 kVp. By fitting the theoretical model to these experimental data, the propagation probability per elementary thickness k was determined and DOG was theoretically calculated for crystal thicknesses from 0.005 cm to 2 cm, in the energy range of Nuclear Medicine Imaging. k values for LaCl3:Ce and LaBr3:Ce crystals were significantly higher compared to other single-crystal scintillators. The DOG values of the two crystals may serve as evidence that the LaBr3:Ce crystal exhibits significantly better performance compared to the LaCl3:Ce crystal. With an increase in energy, the optimum thickness increases for both crystals. Additionally, crystal efficiency generally demonstrates a decrease beyond a certain thickness. The aforementioned insights may provide valuable guidance for the design and optimization of crystal scintillators in Nuclear Medicine Imaging systems.

From bremsstrahlung to channeling radiation a promising way for positron generation

For a long time the necessity of having intense positron beams to get a high rate of events with fixed targets as with e+e− collisions, led to conventional positron sources using high energy and high intensity electron beams generating bremsstrahlung photons in thick high Z targets. The inconveniences for such scheme, heat load and large emittance, are underlined. Alternative ways aiming to provide a high number of photons impinging on rather thin conversion targets have been developed: they are using magnetic undulators, laser Compton backscattering and channeling radiation in axially oriented crystals. A brief description of these methods is given. However, the emphasis is put here on the channeling radiation. The advantages of channeling radiation, described by M.Kumakhov and others, were confirmed by many simulations and experiments. We are reporting, hereafter, on two schemes: positron all-crystal converters involving thick crystals where photon radiation and e+e− pair creation are occurring in the crystal and hybrid sources where the two functions are separated. With the hybrid scheme, including a thin crystal-radiator and a thick amorphous-converter, the heat load and the local deposited energy density can be lowered. Simulations and experiments related to these two schemes are reported. Further developments concerning the converter, granular instead of bulk, are providing additional advantages. The promising, already gathered results led to consider these kinds of positron sources for future e-e+ colliders. More physicists, from different laboratories, concerned by the studies on positron sources are now contributing in this field.

Zero-optical-distance mini-LED backlight with light-guiding microstructure lens for extra-thin, large-area notebook LCDs.

Mini-light-emitting diode (Mini-LED) backlight units (BLUs) in combination with high dynamic range technology can reduce energy and ensure high contrast and luminance. However, the number of LEDs used in mini-LED BLUs is considerably larger than the number of partitions in local dimming, resulting in low cost effectiveness. We proposed a design combining edge-light mini-LEDs and light-guiding microstructure lenses to reduce the number of light sources required in displays considerably. A 16-inch prototype was produced for experiments. The length, width, and thickness of the liquid crystal display module were 351.87, 225.75, and 1.709 mm, respectively. For edge-light mini-LEDs with a pitch of 8.6 mm, the average luminance was 18,836 nits for an input power of 22.5 watts, the uniformity was 85%, the uniformity merit function was 10.13, and the contrast ratio was 60,000:1. Thus, a zero-optical-distance (ZOD) mini-LED backlight for extra-thin, large-area notebook LCDs was produced.

Simulation of ionization charge carrier cascade time and density for a new radiation detection method based on modulation of optical properties.

In time-of-flight PET, image quality and accuracy can be enhanced by improving the annihilation photon pair coincidence time resolution, which is the variation in the arrival time difference between the two annihilation photons emitted from each positron decay in the patient. Recent studies suggest direct detection of ionization tracks and their resulting modulation of optical properties, instead of scintillation, can improve the CTR significantly, potentially down to less than 10 ps CTR. However, the arrival times of the 511keV photons are not predictable, leading to challenges in the spatiotemporal localization characterization of the induced charge carriers in the detector crystal. To establish an optimized experimental setup for measuring ionization induced modulation of optical properties, it is critical to develop a versatile simulation algorithm that can handle multiple detector material properties and time-resolved charge carrier dynamics. We expanded our previous algorithm and simulated ionization tracks, cascade time and induced charge carrier density over time in different materials. For designing a proof-of-concept experiment, we simulated ultrafast electrons and free-electron x-ray photons for timing characterization along with alpha and beta particles for higher spatial localization. With 3 MeV ultrafast electrons, by reducing detector crystal thickness, we can effectively reduce the ionization cascade time to 0.79ps and deposited energy to 198.5keV, which is on the order of the desired 511keV energy. Alpha source simulations produced a cascade time of 2.45ps and charge carrier density of 6.39×1020cm-3 . Compared to the previous results obtained from 511keV photon-induced ionization track simulations, the cascade time displayed similar characteristics, while the charge density was found to be higher. These findings suggest that alpha sources have the potential to generate a stronger ionization-induced signal using the modulation of optical properties as the detection mechanism. This work provides a guideline to understand, design and optimize an experimental platform that is highly sensitive and temporally precise enough to detect single 511keV photon interactions with a goal to advance CTR for ToF-PET.

Modeling of convective transport in crystallization of gallium nitride by basic ammonothermal method

The most important parameter affecting the surface morphology of the growing crystal and its structural quality is supersaturation at the crystallization front. In the case of ammonothermal growth of gallium nitride, supersaturation is fully related to convective mass transport. Due to technological limitations and extreme crystallization conditions it is problematic to obtain detailed information about the internal processes in the growth experiments, especially the convective flow. The solution to this problem is to use the Computational Fluid Dynamics method to model the processes occurring inside autoclaves. This paper presents a quantitative analysis of convective transport in a three-dimensional approximation during the ammonothermal crystallization of gallium nitride. ANSYS Academic Computational Fluid Dynamics simulation software was used. The simulation results obtained were referenced and compared with the experimental results: thickness and structural quality of the gallium nitride crystals.

Halide Perovskites and Their Derivatives for Efficient, High-Resolution Direct Radiation Detection: Design Strategies and Applications.

The past decade has witnessed a rapid rise in the performance of optoelectronic devices based on lead-halide perovskites (LHPs). The large mobility-lifetime products and defect tolerance of these materials, essential for optoelectronics, also make them well-suited for radiation detectors, especially given the heavy elements present, which is essential for strong X-ray and γ-ray attenuation. Over the past decade, LHP thick films, wafers, and single crystals have given rise to direct radiation detectors that have outperformed incumbent technologies in terms of sensitivity (reported values up to 3.5×106 µC Gyair -1 cm-2 ), limit of detection (directly measured values down to 1.5 nGyair s-1 ), along with competitive energy and imaging resolution at room temperature. At the same time, lead-free perovskite-inspired materials (e.g., methylammonium bismuth iodide), which have underperformed in solar cells, have recently matched and, in some areas (e.g., in polarization stability), surpassed the performance of LHP detectors. These advances open up opportunities to achieve devices for safer medical imaging, as well as more effective non-invasive analysis for security, nuclear safety, or product inspection applications. Herein, the principles behind the rapid rises in performance of LHP and perovskite-inspired material detectors, and how their properties and performance link with critical applications in non-invasive diagnostics are discussed. The key strategies to engineer the performance of these materials, and the important challenges to overcome to commercialize these new technologies are also discussed.

Cherenkov-type terahertz generation by optical rectification in KD2PO4 (DKDP) crystal

The potential of KD2PO4 (or DKDP) crystal as a terahertz generator is demonstrated, despite its extremely strong terahertz absorption. By combining the Cherenkov radiation scheme and surface-emitting geometry, femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser pulses of ∼200−300 μJ energy were converted to broadband (∼4 THz bandwidth) terahertz transients with the efficiency of ∼8×10−6. The transients produced electro-optic signals of a ∼0.15 modulation depth and ∼103 dynamic range in a 1-mm thick ZnTe detector crystal. This suggests DKDP as a potential generator crystal for terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. From our measurements, we estimated the nonlinear coefficient d36≈3 pm/V of DKDP for optical rectification, which is an order of magnitude larger than the value known from second-harmonic-generation experiments. At the same time, the obtained value of d36 is an order of magnitude smaller than the value calculated from the clamped electro-optic coefficient r63 for the MHz frequency range. At high pump intensities, we observed multiple filamentation of the pump beam and white light generation, spatially separated from terahertz generation.

Thickness-Dependent Room-Temperature Optoelectronic Gas Sensing Performances of 2D Nonlayered Indium Oxide Crystals from a Liquid Metal Printing Process.

Due to excellent gas sensing performances, such as high responsivity, good selectivity, and long-term stability, two-dimensional (2D) nonlayered metal oxide semiconductors have attracted wide attention. However, their thickness-dependent gas sensing behaviors are rarely investigated, which is critical in the development of practical 2D sensors. In this work, 2D In2O3 crystals with a range of thicknesses are realized by extracting the self-limited oxide layer from the liquid indium droplets in a controlled environment. A strong thickness-dependent optoelectronic NO2 sensing behavior at room temperature is observed. While full reversibility and excellent selectivity toward NO2 are shown despite the thicknesses of 2D In2O3, the 1.9 nm thick In2O3 exhibits a maximum response amplitude (ΔI/Ig = 1300) for 10 ppm of NO2 at room temperature with 365 nm light irradiation, which is about 18, 58, and 810 times larger than those of its 3.1 nm thick, 4.5 nm thick, and 6.2 nm thick counterparts, respectively. The shortest response and recovery times (i.e., 40 s/48 s) are demonstrated for the 1.88 nm thick In2O3 as well. We correlate such a phenomenon with the change in the In2O3 band structure, which is influenced by the thickness of 2D crystals. This work provides in-depth knowledge of the thickness-dependent gas-sensing performances of emerging 2D nonlayered metal oxide crystals, as well as the opportunities to develop next-generation high-performing room-temperature gas sensors.

Unlocking Optical Coupling Tunability in Epsilon‐Near‐Zero Metamaterials Through Liquid Crystal Nanocavities

AbstractEpsilon‐near‐zero (ENZ) metamaterials represent a powerful toolkit for selectively transmitting and localizing light through cavity resonances, enabling the study of mesoscopic phenomena and facilitating the design of photonic devices. In this experimental study, it demonstrates the feasibility of engineering and actively controlling cavity modes, as well as tuning their mutual coupling, in an ENZ multilayer structure. Specifically, by employing a high‐birefringence liquid crystal film as a tunable nanocavity, the polarization‐dependent coupling of resonant modes with narrow spectral width and spatial extent is achieved. Surface forces apparatus (SFA) allowed to continuously and precisely control the thickness of the liquid crystal (LC) film contained between the nanocavities and thus vary the detuning between the cavity modes. Hence, it is able to manipulate nanocavities anti‐crossing behaviors. The suggested methodology unlocks the full potential of tunable optical coupling in epsilon‐near‐zero metamaterials and provides a versatile approach to the creation of tunable photonic devices, including bio‐photonic sensors and/or tunable planar metamaterials for on‐chip spectrometers.

A Monte-Carlo simulation study for design of brain dedicated TOF-PET

Brain positron emission tomography (PET) has several advantages, including improved sensitivity and spatial resolution compared to whole-body PET, which provides a more accurate diagnosis and observation of metabolic activity in the brain. However, the small diameter and design parameter result in a high parallax error and a random count rate, leading to a deteriorated imaging performance. We designed and evaluated brain PET with various design parameters and applied time-of-flight (TOF) technology to overcome the above problems. The aim of the study was to design an optimal structure of the brain dedicated TOF-PET that provides excellent image quality. This study investigated effects of ring diameter, crystal length, and TOF capability on the performance of brain TOF-PET using a Monte-Carlo simulation. Two brain PET were designed and evaluated, consisting of a commercially available brain PET ring diameter (357 mm) and a smaller ring diameter (257 mm) to verify the effect of ring diameter on the performance of the brain PET. Three brain TOF-PET with different crystal thicknesses (10 mm, 15 mm, and 20 mm) and TOF capacities (180 ps, 220 ps, and 260 ps) were assessed and their performances were compared. An optimization study was also performed to design the optimal structure based on the two simulation results. This study determined the optimal structure of brain-dedicated TOF-PET based on trade-offs and performance differences depending on the parameters of brain PET. As a result, we propose a brain-dedicated TOF-PET with a 15 mm crystal length and 257 mm diameter as the optimal structure. The results of this paper could be used to design PET systems for the brain and other specific organs.

Modulating Polymer Ultrathin Film Crystalline Fraction and Orientation with Nanoscale Curvature.

We investigated the effect of nanoscale curvature on the structure of thermally equilibrated poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) ultrathin films. The curvature-induced effects were investigated with synchrotron grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXRD) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Our results demonstrate that nanoscale curvature reduces the polymer crystalline fraction and the crystal length. The first effect is strongest for the lowest curvature and results in a decrease in the out-of-plane thickness of the polymer crystals. On the other hand, the crystal in-plane length decreases with the increase in substrate curvature. Finally, the semi-quantitative analysis of crystal anisotropy shows a marked dependence on the substrate curvature characterized by a minimum at curvatures between 0.00851 nm-1 and 0.0140 nm-1. The results are discussed in terms of a curvature-dependent polymer fraction, which fills the interstices between neighboring particles and cannot crystallize due to extreme space confinement. This fraction, whose thickness is highest at the lowest curvatures, inhibits the crystal nucleation and the out-of-plane crystal growth. Moreover, because of the adhesion to the curved portion of the substrates, crystals adopt a random orientation. By increasing the substrate curvature, the amorphous fraction is reduced, leading to polymer films with higher crystallinity. Finally, when the thickness of the film exceeds the particle diameter, the curvature no longer affects the crystal orientation, which, similarly to the flat case, is predominantly edge on.

Frequency response of terahertz electro-optic sampling detection technology with thin GaSe crystal

GaSe crystal has good applications in the broadband terahertz pulse generation and electro-optic sampling detection technology. In this paper, the frequency responses of GaSe crystal with different thicknesses in the electro-optic sampling (EOS) detection technology are investigated based on the numerical calculations. Then, the pulse distortions of terahertz induced by the EOS detection technology with thin GaSe crystal are investigated. It is found that the lower the central frequency of the terahertz pulse is, the less the distortion is. When the central frequency of terahertz pulse is higher than 4 THz, the pulse distortions, including the frequency shift and the bandwidth changing, are greatly obvious. Both induced by the EOS technology with different thickness of GaSe crystal are also given in detail. This work provides a good reference to evaluate the performance of EOS detection technology with thin GaSe crystal in the broadband terahertz science and technology.

An exact and vigorous kinetic Monte Carlo simulation to determine the properties of bimodal HDPE synthesized with a dual-site metallocene catalyst

A vigorous and progressed Monte Carlo strategy was developed to precisely simulate the ethylene and 1-butene copolymerization within the presence of hydrogen by dual-site metallocene catalyst. The results showed up that the ethylene and 1-butene consumption rates at the second catalyst site were approximately 5 times higher than at the first site, and hydrogen transfer rates at the first catalyst site were over 3 times more rapid than at the second site. It was found that the most elevated molar percentage of 1-butene inside the copolymers synthesized from the second site was around 12% and within the copolymers gotten from the first site was around 2%. At a steady hydrogen concentration, with 8 times increase in the 1-butene concentration within the initial feed, the overall weight average molecular weight (M‾w) and an overall number average molecular weight (M‾n) extended by approximately 50% and 40%, respectively. Besides, at a consistent 1-butene concentration, with 8 times increase in the concentration of hydrogen, M‾w and M‾n diminished by approximately 18% and 22%, separately. Due to the synthesis of two groups of chains with distinct molecular weights, the overall dispersity (Đ) was slightly higher than the dispersity resulting from each catalyst site (1.5–2.1). With increasing 1-butene concentrations, the overall bimodal molecular weight distribution (MWD) widened, and the peak sizes grew smaller and moved towards higher molecular weights. As hydrogen concentration increased, peaks became taller and move toward shorter chain lengths. It was observed that the first site created chain lengths between 102 and 103 while the second site generated chain lengths between 102 and 106. As the concentration of 1-butene was increased in the initial feed, the number of short chain branching per 1000 carbon atoms (SCB/1000C) increased from 10 to 50. Compared to the first site, there were 5 times as many SCBs at the chains produced from the second site. By diminishing the ratio of ethylene to 1-butene, the melt index (MI) tended towards smaller numbers (0.2≤MI≤2). With an increase in the ratio of ethylene to 1-butene and ethylene to hydrogen, the weight fraction of crystals raised from 67.4 to 69.5% and diminished from 71 to 69.5%, respectively. At last, increasing the temperature led to a diminish in molecular weight, a narrowing of the bimodal MWD, an increment within the thickness and weight fraction of crystals, and an increment within the density of HDPE.

Dynamic diffraction of planar X-rays in a crystal lattice with a weak deformation field

In this paper, we consider the problem of the formation of a wave field during dynamic X-ray diffraction under conditions of weak deformation of the crystal lattice induced by a temperature gradient directed along the diffraction vector. Within the framework of the Takagi equations, which describe the propagation of the amplitudes of transmitted and reflected waves in the grating, analytical solutions dependence on the deformation parameters of these amplitudes are given. The angular width of the reflected X-ray radiation, as well as its dependence on the thickness of the single crystal, has been studied. It is shown that with increasing deformation, the rocking curves of the crystal slowly broaden, and their maximum intensity increases, reaching unity (the case of complete transfer). With a further increase in the deformation of the reflecting planes, the rocking curves continues to widen, and their maximum slowly decreases. It is also shown that the angular width of the complete transfer x-rays is directly proportional to the thickness of the sample under study. All observed phenomena are given a theoretical interpretation based on the general theory of dynamic scattering based on the Takagi equations and the eikonal approximation for weakly deformed crystal lattice fields.

An improved analytical model of a thick defective phononic crystal for bending wave excitation

This research aims to advance the existing analytical model, which was based on the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, for predicting the velocity amplitude of bending waves excited while amplified by defective phononic crystals (PnCs) with piezoelectric elements. The previous analytical model falls short for thick defective PnCs and is limited to low frequencies. Hence, the Timoshenko beam theory is newly incorporated to address these issues, considering shear deformations and rotational inertia. Its performance is validated against a finite element model. It confirms that the proposed analytical model outperforms its predecessor, which was suitable for thin defective PnCs with a slenderness ratio above 10 and frequencies around 2 kHz. Remarkably, the improved analytical model demonstrates excellent predictive capabilities up to 40 kHz for thick defective PnCs with a slenderness ratio of around 2.5. With a relative error of less than 1% compared to the finite element model, this advanced approach also demonstrates time-efficient and stable computational performance. This work introduces three contributions. First, it pioneers the proposal of an electromechanically coupled analytical model for predicting the performance of defect-mode-enabled bending wave excitation. Second, this enhanced analytical model surpasses existing counterparts in terms of both accuracy and computational stability, particularly for thick defective PnCs, even at high frequencies. Last, the analytical model dramatically reduces the computation time.

Fabrication and characterization of CaF2 target for multi-nucleon transfer reaction studies

Thin CaF2 targets with carbon backing are fabricated for the first time using physical vapour deposition technique at the target laboratory of IUAC, New Delhi to perform a multi nucleon transfer reaction on 10,11B＋40Ca systems using General Purpose Scattering Chamber (GPSC) facility. Ca being an oxidizing material, we have used molecular CaF2 as the target material instead of Ca. Using turbo-molecular pump based coating unit (TMPU), carbon is deposited on cleaned glass slide and then CaF2 is deposited on diffusion pump based coating unit (DPU). We are successful in fabricating CaF2 targets of thickness ≈264.4μg/cm2 on carbon backing of thickness ≈21.5μg/cm2. The thickness and purity measured by the crystal thickness monitor equipped with the vacuum chamber is verified by different techniques like alpha energy loss, Rutherford Back Scattering (RBS), Electron Diffraction Spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). Small impurity level were smeared during the observation and the target is successfully used for nuclear reaction experiment. The fabrication of molecular Ca target is found to be more conducive to experimentation since they exhibit less oxidation and herewith we discuss about fabrication technique, experimentation and characterization.

Enhanced terahertz magneto-optical performance in substrate-free ultra-thick TbErBi:RIG crystal films

A wafer-scale single crystal thick film of rare-earth iron garnet (RIG) has been successfully produced on a 3-in. gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) substrate using the liquid phase epitaxy method. The RIG crystal's thickness measures ∼550 μm. By removing the GGG substrate through polishing, we improved the terahertz (THz) transmittance of the RIG crystal. In the frequency range of 0.1–1.0 THz, the RIG material exhibits a large refractive index of around 4.50, with a transmittance of ∼60% and an absorption rate of only 10–50 cm−1. Furthermore, we investigated the THz magneto-optical effect in the RIG material through THz time-domain spectroscopy. The observed results demonstrate the presence and significance of the magneto-optical effect in the RIG crystal. To provide further insights, we measured the THz Faraday rotation angle of the 550 μm-thick RIG crystal using the THz-TDS system under an external magnetic field of 0.17 T. The measured Faraday rotation angle reached 22°, and the calculated Verdet constant for the RIG sample was ∼120°/mm/T. Considering these findings, our study highlights the unique properties of this wafer-scale single crystal thick film of RIG, including its low loss, high transmission, and strong magneto-optical effect in the THz range. These characteristics make it a promising candidate for various applications, such as THz magnetic polarization conversion, non-reciprocal phase shifters, and isolators.

Effects of friction stir processing on strength and ductility of laser directed energy deposited AerMet100 steel

Due to thick columnar crystals and obvious pores as typical defects, the mechanical properties of AerMet100 steel fabricated by laser directed energy deposition (LDED) are adversely affected, limiting its applicability in aerospace industry. Aiming at both defects, we developed friction stir processing as a post treatment to strengthen the LDEDed specimens, with two following advantages: (i) it significantly reduced the porosity and homogenized the microstructure, and the average grain size was decreased from 4.75 μm to 1.24 μm; and (ii) it significantly enhanced room temperature tensile properties by eliminating the pores, leading to the fact that the elongation increased from 3.51% to 7.38%, and the ultimate tensile strength increased from 1458 MPa to 1561 MPa. Therefore, FSP generated a simultaneous improvement in both the strength and elongation of the LDEDed AerMet100 steel.