Crushed Ice Research Articles

Time‐Temperature Effects on the Bacteriological Quality of Stored Shellfish.

SUMMARY—The effect of storage in crushed ice and at 3 and 10°C on the bacteriological quality of shucked Pacific osyters and Olympia osyters was determined. The indices used were the 35°C plate count, coliform MPN, fecal coliform MPN, and pH. Fifteen lots of Pacific oysters and 12 lots of Olympia oysters, collected at various seasons, were examined. The 35°C plate count showed the best correlation with time and temperature OF storage. Fecal coliform MPN's showed the greatest stability under all storage conditions. Coliform MPN's increased at all three temperatures, but the patterns of change were less uniform than those of the 35°C plate count. The pH changes generally showed poor correlation with bacteriological changes.

Ultrastructural, enzyme histochemical and light microscopic investigation of the myocardium in cases undergoing open-heart surgery.

Ultrastructural and enzyme histochemical changes in biopsies after perfusion in comparison with biopsies before perfusion demonstrated:(1) Negligible and probably reversible changes in cases with congenital heart disease as compared with those with acquired aortic valvular disease.(2) The myocardial protection of crushed ice during aortic occlusion for repeated periods of 20–25 minutes with intervals of 5 minutes of coronary perfusion proved to be very good.(3) Concomitant coronary artery disease in acquired aortic valvular disease with resulting impaired coronary perfusion increases the incidence of more advanced ultrastructural changes. The local hypothermia should be utilized.We are searching for criteria of the irreversibly damaged myocardium where a valve replacement will no longer improve the patient's condition. Therefore this investigation was performed to study the ultrastructure, enzyme histochemistry and light microscopy of the patients' myocardium. These findings are then correlated to the hea...

RADIATION EFFECTS IN PRECISION RESISTANCE THERMOMETRY: II. ILLUMINATION EFFECT ON TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT IN WATER TRIPLE-POINT CELLS PACKED IN CRUSHED ICE

The heating effect of normal laboratory illumination on the sensors of standard platinum resistance thermometers immersed in a standard water triple-point cell packed in crushed ice has been investigated. This study shows that the absorption by the platinum sensors of luminous and near-infrared radiation transmitted through the ice pack could easily amount to temperature errors as large as 0.000 5 °C. Any illumination error must be eliminated by making all measurements in the dark or under adequate radiation shielding.

Studies on American Paragonimiasis. II. Serological Observations of Infected Cats

Extracts prepared from adult worms of Paragonimus kellicotti contain a minimum of five soluble precipitating antigens. The possibility of two or more metabolic antigens is also discussed. Sera from cats infected for as long as 210 days contained precipitating and complement fixing antibody, but failed to immobilize miracidia or show extensive Cercarienhiillen reaction, cercarial immobilization, or agglutination reactions. There have been few or no attempts to characterize the antigens present in various stages of the life cycle of Paragonimus kellicotti Ward, 1908. Indeed, little or no work has been done to study the immunological aspects of animals infected with P. kellicotti. Serological tests have been developed for the clinical diagnosis of human infections (Sadun, Buck, and Walton, 1959; Yokogawa, Cort, and Yokogawa, 1960; Kent, 1963). The complement fixation and the intradermal skin test have been most extensively studied using an antigen prepared from adult worms. Sadun et al. (1959) also studied the complement fixation test with sera from infected cats. However, in none of this work has the number or type of antigens present in Paragonimus extracts been determined. Nor has there been any report on the use of other stages in the life cycle of P. kellicotti as the antigenic material. Reasonable quantities of all stages of the life cycle of P. kellicotti can be maintained in the laboratory (Sogandares-Bemal, 1965). The availability of such laboratory-raised material and the lack of prior experimentation in this area suggested that an immunological study of Paragonimus kellicotti infection in the cat might be fruitfully explored. In addition, it was of interest to determine whether the serology of P. kellicotti infections are similar to schistosome and other Paragonimus species infections. This work describes our serological observations on sera obtained from infected cats, and includes a preliminary characterization of antigens found in the adult worms. Received for publication 30 August 1965. * This work was supported by a research grant from the NIH (AI 03386-TMP). METHODS Domestic cats (7 to 10 lbs) were infected by feeding them varying numbers of metacercariae of P. kellicotti. The cats were killed after a predetermined period of time, and the serum and adult worms were collected. All sera were stored at -30 C until needed. In addition, the cyst wall and the fluid from the inside of the cyst were collected from several cats. Various pieces of tissue surrounding the cyst were also obtained for use as antigens. Cats were necropsied for helminth infections of the intestine. Other stages in the life cycle of P. kellicotti were mai tained as previously described (SogandaresBernal, 1965). Paragonimus extracts were prepared by homogenizing 15 to 25 adult worms in 6 to 8 ml distilled water with the aid of a hand glass homogenizer. The adult worms used in extracts were relatively free of eggs due to the removal of their uteri. The homogenate was then centrifuged at 12,000 g for 10 min in a refrigerated centrifuge. The supernatant was used as the antigen. In one experiment, the adult worms were homogenized in 0.1 M borate buffer (pH 8.3). The homogenate was centrifuged and the supernatant collected. Then 0.2 N HC1 was added to the supernatant which was chilled in a crushed ice bath and stirred with a magnetic stirrer to pH 4.0. The precipitate which formed was removed by centrifugation at 12,000 g for 10 min. The acid soluble supernatant (acid soluble fraction) was saved and the sediment resuspended in the original volume of borate buffer, pH 8.3. This suspension was centrifuged at 12,000 g for 10 min, the sediment discarded, and the supernatant retained (acid insoluble-alkali soluble fraction). All antigens were stored at -30 C until needed. In addition, Paragonimus extract (0.8 mg protein/ml) was treated with trypsin (0.1 mg/ml, 2X crystallized, Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo., 30 C) or chymotrypsin (0.1 mg/ml, crystalline, Type IV, Sigma Chemical Company, 30 C) for 1 hr. The treated extract was chilled and then tested for the presence of Paragonimus antigens. Protein was assayed by the method of Lowry et al. (1951). All antigen suspensions were made to contain from 0.4 to 0.45 mg protein/ml.

Water Absorption in Broilers as Influenced by Carcass to Coolant Ratio

PROCESSED poultry are generally chilled in a combination of crushed ice and water. During the chill period, processed poultry may show either a decrease or increase in carcass weights (Tarver et al., 1956; Thomson et al., 1960; and Mickelberry et al., 1962). Several factors, including prechill weight and class of processed poultry, type and circulation of coolant, will influence the degree of water absorption (Connally et al., 1954; Orr, 1953; and Roberts and Robertson, 1941). May et al. (1963), reported low levels of phosphate (4 ounces per gallon of ice slush solution) significantly increased broiler carcass weights during chilling.The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of reducing volumes of coolant per pound of carcass on cooled broiler carcass weights. EXPERIMENTALIn a series of 6 trials, 895 uncooled commercially eviscerated broilers were delivered to the Poultry Science Department processing laboratory. Immediately, each carcass was randomly identified, weighed…

The Effect of Phosphates on Moisture Absorption, Retention and Cooking Losses of Broiler Carcasses

Abstract THE losses in weight and variations in the rate at which moisture is released from poultry carcasses chilled in a slush ice mixture and then stored in crushed ice are problems of considerable importance to the poultry industry. Not only is there considerable variation in the amount of water absorbed during chilling, but it is also difficult to predict the amount and the rate of loss during the period the carcasses are stored in crushed ice. Although there is some information available on the effect of chilling carcasses for different periods and on the weight losses of carcasses stored in crushed ice a method is needed to control the loss of moisture in ice packed poultry. Bailey (1948), Fromm and Monroe (1958), Froning et al. (1960), Kotula et al. (1960), Thompson et al. (1961), and Bigbee and Dawson (1961) have all conducted experiments which demonstrated the rates at which carcasses…

Biochemical Changes in Fish Muscle During Rigor Mortis

SUMMARYMullets (Mugil dussumieri), Bombay ducks (Harpodon nehereus), and groupers (Epinephalus malabaricus) were stored in crushed ice at about 2°C, and changes in pH, glycogen, lactic acid, inorganic phosphorus, creatine phosphate, ATP, acid‐soluble and Ba‐acetate non‐precipitable ribose, and TMA were studied. Though glycogen decreased and lactic acid increased throughout, no direct relation was observed, and measurable quantities of glycogen were present at the end of the experiment. Inorganic phosphorus increased slowly, and creatine phosphate and ATP decreased, the former at a more rapid rate. The Ba‐acetate non‐precipitable ribose and the ratio of non‐precipitable ribose to acid‐soluble ribose increased continuously. TMA values rose slowly, but were quite low even at the end of the experiment.

クロルテトラサイクリン氷を使用した魚函における耐性菌の増加ならびに魚函の殺菌について

The aims of this paper are to study the change in total bacterial counts and number of emerged resistant strains on fish and fish container during a 1-month storage of CTC-treated Jack mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) in crushed plain ice or CTC-ice, and further to estimate the effectiveness of bactericides in reducing bacterial counts on used wooden container. The growth of bacteria on the fish was retarded by a combination of CTC-dip and CTC-icing (Fig. 1). Retardation of growth of bacteria on the fish as well as on the container by the use of CTC-ice was more marked when held in the metallic container (Figs. 1 and 2). The emergence of resistant strains (MIC > 10ppm) on the metallic container occurred 5 to 10 days later than on the wooden one. Difference in time of emergence of resistant strains on fish skin was also noted between groups stored in these containers (Fig. 3). The maximum attainable number of total bacteria and of resistant strains which occurred on the metallic container was remarkably lower than that on the wooden container irrespective of kinds of ice employed (Fig. 2). Brushing of surface of the wooden container with benzarconium chloride or sodium hypochloride solution containing a 200 ppm level was effective in reducing the bacterial count to only about 1.5% of the original count before the treatment. It is to be noted that bacterial count in a 2-mm layer from surface of a water-washed wooden container did not show any appreciable decrease even after a thorough washing with a 200-ppm solution of any one of the bactericides studied (Table 3).

アヘンアルカロイドの分析研究 (第11報)

Oxidation of codeine and morphine with ceric ammonium nitrate and application of 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine results in orange-red coloration. Thebaine, narcotine, and papaverine color yellowish to this reaction and can therefore be discriminated from the former two. Limit of detection is 1.5γ/0.05cc. In quantitative determination, interfering thebaine, narcotise, and papaverine must be removed. The procedure for determination of codeine is as follows: One cc. of aqueous solution of codeine (30-240 γ/cc.) is placed in a 5-cc. measuring flask, 2cc. of water is added, and the mixture is allowed to stand in crushed ice (0 to 2°) for 5 minutes. To this solution, 1cc. of 0.6% ceric ammonium nitrate (in N sulfuric acid), which had been stood in crushed ice for 5 minutes, is added, mixed well, and allowed to stand at that temperature for 25 minutes. To this mixture, 0.5cc. of 0.6% 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine solution is added, the flask is removed from the ice bath, and allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 minutes. The mixture is diluted to 5cc. with water, shaken well, and transferred to a glass-stoppered centrifuge tube. Ten cc. of isoamyl acetate is added to the tube, shaken 100 times, and centrifuged for 3 minutes. Isoamyl acetate layer is discarded, 5cc. of fresh isoamyl acetate is added, and treated in the same manner. Absorbancy of the aqueous layer is measured at 500mμ. A blank test is carried out with the same reagent and in the same manner, using 1cc. of water in place of the test solution, and used as the control.In the presence of thebaine, the test solution is heated with N hydrochloric acid, basified with sodium hydroxide, and shaken with chloroform to transfer codeine into the chloroform layer.In the presence of narcotine and papaverine, the test sample is dissolved in 0.2% tartaric acid, shaken with chloroform, and the aqueous layer is submitted to determination of codeine as above.

The Rate of Sliding and the Analysis of Friction on Snow Part IV

Using the rotation friction instrument, we tried the measurement of friction of crushed ice and found that the friction of plastics, paraffin, skiing wax may will be studied in an ordinary laboratory by the use of crushed ice instead of snow.Thus much information about the friction of snow and crushed ice was obtained, we finally used organic crystals in place of snow and measured friction in the neighbourhood of theirmelting point.In this case, μS and μK at low temperatures were found to take nearly the same values as in the case of snow and to decrease gradually as the temperature approaches the melting point of organic crystal. Above melting point, excess melt showed abnormal increase of μK and decrease of, μS as the case with snow.From old times, the phenomena due to the friction of snow has been considered as quite peculiar to snow, but the above mentioned data show that these phenomena are common to all kinds of crystals, organic and inorganic. It is true, in the case of snow crystal, molten crystal water absorbed by sliding surface or suspended between sliding surface and compressed snow layer causes more complication, but it has now been shown that the same sort of complication arises also in the frictional phenomena of other kind of crystals in the neibourhood of their melting point.

Changes in the lipids of cod during storage in ice

AbstractCod were stored in crushed ice and the composition of the flesh lipids determined at intervals over a total period of about 8 weeks. The outstanding changes are hydrolysis of phospholipids with concomitant production of free fatty acids, and progressive esterification of free “cholesterol”. The former takes place without accumulation of such intermediates as lysophosphatides, phosphatidic acids or diglycerides, but there is evidence of some intermediate between free and esterified sterol. Lecithin and phosphatidyl ethanol‐amine are hydrolysed at the same rate. Initial rates of change are relatively low, becoming markedly greater after about 2 weeks, but virtually ceasing rather abruptly before complete conversion has occurred. After about 5 weeks, when some 70% of the phospholipids has been hydrolysed, there is no further breakdown, while the chemical composition of the phospholipids does not alter significantly at any time. The sterol transformations, as observed, are virtually over after 6 weeks, with 85% of the sterol in the esterified form, but it is uncertain whether the final sterol is cholesterol. The only definite destruction of lipid which occurred was of free fatty acids, in one experiment, after about 5 weeks. The possible contributions of non‐enzymic, autolytic and bacterial agencies to the over‐all effects have been briefly considered.

漁獲直後の処理法が肉質変化におよぼす影響の研究-I

The authors examined on the killing and storing methods for keeping quality of fish meat using mackerel, Scomber japonicus, dace, Leuciscus haknensis and carp, Cyprinus carpio. The freshness of fish was criticized by the estimation of volatile basic-N, trimethylamine-N, pH and firmness of flesh and by organoleptic tests. The results obtained are summarized in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. For the killing methods as seen in Tables 1 and 4, it was the best of all that fish were stunned by a blow on the head, decapitated and eviscerated, while the round fish which had been killed by being left alone in the air after catching were always the worst. However, the killing method such as cutting tail and bleeding or stabbing in the medulla of neck was not so good as the authors expected, because of its taking long time till death in the former and its technical difficulty in the latter. Viewing from the storing conditions employed, the method immersing fish in ice-saline water containing 1% NaC1 and 0.01% butyrated hydroxy anisole was the best of all. Then it was followed by the methods of immersing in ice-saline water containing 1% NaC1 or icewater and of icing with a mixture of 1% NaC1. However the fish solely kept in crushed ice was always the worst.

Moisture Absorption and Retention of Freshly Eviscerated Broilers as Influenced by Holding Time in Slush Ice

ESSENTIALLY all of the fresh packed eviscerated broilers processed in the United States are initially chilled in slush ice. Most processors hold eviscerated broiler carcasses in slush ice for approximately 1 hour in order that the carcass temperature may be lowered to at least 40°F. The chilled eviscerated carcasses are generally shipped to market packed in crushed ice in order to keep the carcasses in a chilled state and limit dehydration. However, some processors permit carcasses to stay in chill tanks for periods of time longer than necessary for cooling. One reason advanced for this procedure is that the carcasses absorb water thus enhancing their economic value. Cook (1939) found that immersing dressed poultry carcasses in water (45°F.) for 2 hours resulted in a mean gain in weight of 0.22%. Jones (1950) stated that dressed carcasses chilled with slush ice for 2½ hours showed a mean gain in weight of . . .

Bacterial Contamination and Shelf Life of Freshly Eviscerated Broilers as Influenced by Holding Time in Slush Ice

THE body heat of freshly eviscerated broilers is usually removed by submerging the carcass in a mixture of crushed ice and water. Currently the practice of many processors is to hold carcasses in slush ice for various periods ranging from approximately 1 to 24 hours after carcass temperature has been lowered to 40°F. Gunderson et al. (1954) found that storing poultry carcasses in chill tanks beyond the cooling period caused an increase in surface bacterial contamination. Lockhead and Landerkin (1935) and Ziegler et al. (1954) found that deterioration of fresh dressed poultry is essentially surface spoilage due to bacterial growth. Similar findings were reported by Gunderson et al. (1954). In view of the lack of sufficient information relative to the effects of holding eviscerated broilers in chill tanks for prolonged periods of time, the present study was undertaken to determine carcass bacterial contamination and shelf life as influenced by holding . . .

The Manufacture of Small Ice

Abstract Small ice may be defined as water frozen in the form of ribbons, strips, fragments, cubes, or relatively small pieces, whether regular or irregular in shape, or pieces compounded thereof, or compounded of crushed ice. With the exception of ice cubes frozen in the domestic electric or gas refrigerator, it is only at the beginning of its third decade of successful commercialization. The daily production of small ice is now a substantial tonnage, a growth from less than 10 tons per day at the time of the visit of the Metropolitan New York Section of the American Society of Refrigerating Engineers to the author’s first commercial plant in 1928 (1). Although the reasons for this growth will be mentioned briefly, this paper will be limited to an abbreviated description of the numerous developments of processes and machinery for freezing small ice, including those in commercial operation today. No mention will be made of the equally numerous methods of freezing large cakes of ice and then crushing, sawing, or grid or wire-melting them into small ice, the product of which has not been included in the production stated.

STABILIZATION OF THE ALCOHOLIC POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE IN COLORIMETRIC 17-KETOSTEROID DETERMINATIONS1

The 2.5 normal potassium hydroxide in absolute ethanol employed in the Callow modification of the Zimmermann reaction (Callow et ah, 1938), cannot be used for more than a few days after preparation. A marked increase in the color developed in reagent blank mixtures indicates deterioration even before the solution turns yellow. Various observations suggested that these changes are primarily oxidative. It therefore appeared probable that a suitable reducing agent would stabilize the solution. Experimental findings described below reveal that incorporation of ascorbic acid in the reagent, and maintenance of an atmosphere of nitrogen, yield preparations which remain stable for at least 3 months. Preparation of 2.5 N Alcoholic Potassium Hydroxide Protected with Ascorbic Acid and Nitrogen.—One hundred ml. of absolute alcohol are measured into a glass stoppered Pyrex bottle chilled in crushed ice. Two lots of 15 mg. each of ascorbic acid are weighed.

Effectiveness of Benzoic Acid Ice for Fish Preservation

Only a very slight improvement in keeping quality of dressed halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) and black cod (Anoplopoma fimbria), as evidenced by differences in viable bacterial population and trimethylamine content of excised muscle, results when the fish are stored in crushed tap water ice containing 0.1 per cent benzoic acid instead of in similar ice without this compound. The methods employed for a relatively simple determination of both viable bacterial population and trimethylamine content of the same sample of muscle are described, and the limitations of these as criteria of the relative age of dressed fish stowed in crushed ice are discussed. The "tyrosine" reaction failed to show greater effectiveness for benzoic acid ice; the values increased during storage, but were too irregular to serve as a safe criterion of spoilage.

Food Storage and Transport

ON September 7, Sir Frank Smith, Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, delivered the Hardy Memorial Lecture before the British Association at Aberdeen, in which he paid tribute to the work of the late Sir William Hardy, who during the last seventeen years of his life, devoted much of his time to research on the transport and storage of foodstuffs. Sir Frank described the work being done on the kippered herring at the Torry Research Station, Aberdeen, which was founded by Sir William Hardy. A new kippering kiln has been evolved there, in which all variables such as temperature, humidity, etc., can be controlled. Thus, any desired cure can be produced with certainty.’ At the same station, a new kind of mild salted herring has been produced by the combined processes of salting and chilling. About 1,600 steam trawlers fish from the ports of Great Britain, landing nearly 700,000 tons of white fish valued at about 12 £ million sterling each year. Storage in crushed ice, under conditions prevailing when Hardy took up the problem in 1929, could only hold such fish fresh for 6-7 days. To-day, work at the Torry Station has extended that period to 12 days, by reducing bacterial contamination. Further work has shown that freezing in brine at –20 ° C. and storing at the same temperature will keep the fish for three months. The 10,000-ton vessel Arctic Queen, fitted as a floating factory for halibut, was also described. The importance of refrigeration cannot be over-emphasised in connexion with food storage and transport. Sir William Hardy's fruitful work along these lines was fittingly described by Sir Frank. Thanks largely to the work of Sir William, it is realised to-day that the biologist must formulate the condition required in food storage and transport, and the engineer provide those conditions. The problems of the biologist concern not only methods of refrigeration itself, but also cleanliness, damage to foods by cold, etc. The most recent developments in gas storage using carbon dioxide, and in the storage of living material such as fruit, were also discussed by Sir Frank.

Studies on the Antigenic Substances of Clostridium Parabotulinum. II

Abstract In studies on the complement fixation and precipitin reactions (1, 2, 3), it has been shown that extracts prepared by alternate freezing and thawing of suspensions of Clostridium parabotulinum are highly group specific when tested with antiserums produced by the inoculation of intact organisms. It was thought that it would be of interest to test the antigenic properties of such extracts when injected into the animal body. Extracts were prepared from seven representative strains of Cl. parabotulinum by various methods. Twenty-four hour cultures in glucose veal broth were centrifugalized and washed three times in salt solution. In one series the organisms were suspended in neutral distilled water, in a second in neutral 0.85 per cent salt solution, and in a third in alkaline salt solution (pH 8.0). The suspensions were frozen in a mixture of crushed ice and salt and thawed rapidly by plunging into warm water (70°C.).

Electrification of an Ice Factory

THE Grimsby Ice Company has now the largest ice factory in the world. The trawlers of Grimsby fish in the North Sea and off the west coast of Greenland, All the six hundred trawlers take supplies of ice when they set off for the fishing grounds, each boat taking about 15 tons when going to fish in the North Sea and four times as much when fishing in Icelandic waters. In the Metropolitan-Vickers Gazette for March and April, J. H. Lamb gives an interesting account of the electrification of the factory. The plant is capable of turning out 1,200 tons of crushed ice a day and delivering it into the holds of the fishing vessels by means of a fleet of motor lorries. Before reconstruction, the plant was driven by ponderous slow-speed engines. It has now been replaced by electrically driven compressors and all the auxiliary equipment has been completely electrified. The refrigerating medium is ammonia and the ammonia gas is raised in the compressors to a pressure of between 100 Ib. and 180 Ib. per sq. in. It is next cooled and liquified by passing through a condenser. The liquid then passes to the refrigerating plant in tubes surrounded by brine. The liquid expanding to its gaseous form absorbs heat from the brine which is cooled below 0° C. The cold brine is circulated in a large tank containing the cans which hold the pure water to be frozen. The four compressors are driven by four motors each of 600 horse power. These are supplied with electric power by the Grimsby Corporation, through a transmission line at 6,300 volts. The Ice Company is developing a new process of freezing which it is hoped will popularise frozen fish. Complaints have been made that frozen fish are ‘soft’ or ‘mushy’ when thawed. By rapidly freezing them the water between the flakes of the fish does not crystallise and when thawed it is stated that the fish is just as firm and white as fresh fish.