Crumb Properties Research Articles

Sensory and Microstructural Properties of Cakes Made with Flour from Low Postharvest Physiologically Deteriorated Cassava

The pertinent information generated from studying quality characteristics such as the structure and crumb properties of baked food products such as bread, cake etc. is very critical as it enhances product quality and inevitably help improve consumer acceptability. This research was carried out to assess the sensory qualities and investigate the microstructural properties of cakes made with high quality cassava flour (HQCF) from selected varieties of low postharvest physiologically deteriorated (PPD) cassava. Wholesome four varieties of yellow-fleshed Low PPD cassava and one variety of high PPD cassava were processed into high quality cassava flour flowing unit operations such peeling, washing, grating, pressing, pulverization and eventual drying using flash dryer operated at 120 °C for 10 minutes followed by milling with cyclone hammer mill fitted with a screen of 250 µm aperture size; the HQCF was allowed to cool, sieved and then packed into high density polyethylene bag. The cakes were analyzed for sensory and microstructural properties. Analysis of variance was performed on the data generated while significant means were separated applying Duncan Multiple Range Test using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 25.0). Generally, there was no significant difference (p≥0.05) in the sensory qualities (Color, texture, aroma, taste, flavor and overall acceptability) of the cakes made. The cake samples had sensory scores with ranges: (2.20 – 3.40), texture (2.60 – 4.10), aroma (2.90 – 4.20), taste (3.10 – 3.80) favor (2.90 – 3.80) and overall acceptability (2.90 – 3.70). The most preferred cake sample was C-070593 (cake sample baked with HQCF from IITA-TMS-IBA070593 cassava. Microstructural properties of cake baked with wheat flour was significantly different from cakes baked with HQCF from low PPD cassava owing to water absorption capacity, starch gelatinization characteristics and dough composition such as gluten quality. Cakes of acceptable sensorial and microstructural characteristics similar to that made with 100% wheat flour were produced with HQCF from selected varieties of low PPD cassava.

Baking Quality Assessment of Twenty Whole Grain Oat Cultivar Samples.

Whole grain oat has become an increasingly popular baking ingredient. Still, oat baking poses many industrial challenges because the baking quality criteria have not been set for whole grain oat flours, and cultivar variation remains unknown. We aimed to assess the baking quality variation of twenty whole grain oat cultivar samples, and to identify the factors that caused the variation. It was hypothesised that by optimising the water absorption of the dough (i.e., dough yield) by test baking method, the best baking potential could be achieved for all oat cultivar samples. The baking trials were conducted as whole oat baking, without wheat or gluten additions. In most of the samples, good baking quality was obtained by dough yield optimisation. The highest specific volumes (1.9–1.93 mL/g) and best crumb properties were achieved in the samples with the highest optimal dough yields, 205. However, baking quality varied, as all samples could not be baked with good quality at high dough yields. Additionally, small median particle size and high fat content of the oat flours were related to good baking properties of whole grain oat at optimised dough yield (p < 0.05). These findings can benefit the development and the optimisation of industrial oat baking processes.

Impact of exogenous \u03b1-amylases on sugar formation in straight dough wheat bread

The use of bacterial or fungal α-amylases is common in wheat bread production to improve several quality-related parameters such as loaf volume, crust color or staling behavior. To study the impact of exogenous α-amylases on straight dough wheat bread, we quantitated mono-, di- and oligosaccharides and residual α-amylase activity in bread crumb during storage for up to 96 h. Discovery-driven proteomics of the five α-amylase preparations studied showed that only a few different amylases per preparation were responsible for the hydrolytic effect. Compared to the control, the supplementation with α-amylase from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens in wheat dough preparation led to major changes in the sugar composition of bread crumb during storage with the formation of oligosaccharides like maltopentaose, maltohexaose, maltoheptaose, and maltooctaose. A residual activity corresponding to 4.0% of the applied activity was determined in the breads prepared with α-amylase from B. amyloliquefaciens, but no residual activity was detected for any of the other fungal or bacterial α-amylases from Aspergillus oryzae or Thermoactinomyces vulgaris. Whether the detected residual activity is related to the characteristics of bread staling or bread crumb properties must be clarified in further studies.

Effect of Barley Antifreeze Protein on Dough and Bread during Freezing and Freeze-Thaw Cycles

In order to verify the cryoprotective effect of an antifreeze protein (BaAFP-1) obtained from barley on bread dough, the effect of BaAFP-1 on the rheological properties, microstructure, fermentation, and baking performance including the proofing time and the specific volume of bread dough and bread crumb properties during freezing treatment and freeze-thaw cycles were analysed. BaAFP-1 reduced the rate of decrease in storage modulus and loss modulus values during freezing treatment and freeze-thaw cycles. It influenced the formation and the shape of ice formed during freezing and inhibited ice recrystallization during freeze-thaw. BaAFP-1 maintained gas production ability and gas retention properties, protected gluten network and the yeast cells from deterioration caused by ice formation and ice crystals recrystallisation in dough samples during freezing treatment and freeze-thaw treatment. It slow down the increase rate of hardness of bread crumb. The average area of pores in bread crumbs decreased significantly (p < 0.05) as the total number of pores increased (p < 0.05), and the addition of BaAFP-1 inhibited this deterioration. These results confirmed the cryoprotective activity of BaAFP-1 in bread dough during freezing treatment and freeze-thaw cycles.

Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy and Image Analysis for Elucidating Crumb and Crust Microstructure of Bran-Enriched South African Fried Dough and Batter

A double staining protocol for image acquisition using confocal microscopy (CLSM) coupled with image analysis was employed to elucidate the crust and cross-sectional properties of fried dough. Penetrated oil by image analysis (POia), porosity and pore features were quantified from the cross-section micrographs. Crust surface roughness was measured using fractal metrics and fat content was determined by solvent extraction using the American Association of Cereal Chemists method. Crumb porosity ranged between 54.94%–81.84% and reduced (p < 0.05) with bran addition. Crumb pore sizes ranged from 0–475 µm with <1 circularity, indicating elliptical shape. POia values were notably higher (p < 0.05) than PO by Soxhlet extraction (POsox), except for wheat bran (WB) fried dough where the values of POia and POsox were closely ranked. The linear effect of initial moisture content and bran concentration showed a significant impact on the image properties. The mean fractal dimension (FD) decreased as initial moisture increased. The addition of WB caused a significant reduction in the FD of fried dough, while the opposite effect was noted for its oat bran counterpart. Due to non-collinearity of image properties (FD, POia and porosity), data were fitted to cubic polynomial regression with R2 values > 0.70. CLSM and image analysis were effective in measuring oil absorption and interpreting crumb properties of fried dough. The protocol used in this study can be applied to other thick deep-fried foods for qualitative observation and quantitative measurement of a specific physical or chemical property.

Starch replacement in gluten free bread by cellulose and fibrillated cellulose

This study investigated starch reduction and replacement by purified cellulose (FC0) and fibrillated cellulose (FC60) which included a comprehensive investigation on dough properties, proofing behaviours, cooking performance, and bread qualities. Replacing flour with FC0 and FC60 was found to strength the doughs without, however, altering the extension of the structural network according to the weak gel model. The relaxation time calculated by the generalised Maxwell model was found to be shorter than the deformation rate during proofing which suggests that the doughs behave like fluids during proofing. The relaxation time was less influenced by the additions of FC0 and FC60. Although the initial stage of proofing was less influenced, the later stage was significantly affected by the additions of FC0 and FC60 which increased dough rigidity and restrained the volume growth. The pasting properties were significantly influenced by the competition for water and volume between FC0/FC60 and flour. The bread qualities were characterised in terms of loaf volume and crumb properties. Loaves containing FC0 and FC60 had smaller specific volume and harder crumb. However, the addition of FC0 and FC60 is beneficial to the generation of a finer crumb structure. Fibrillation process is detrimental to maximise the addition of fibres. However, a small amount of fibrillated cellulose is beneficial to workability and crumb structure.

Effect of time and temperature sorghum germination on the fineness and color of sorghum sprout flour

Sorghum is a local product that is quite prospective in providing local carbohydrate sources. Processing sorghum seeds into sorghum flour is one alternative to replace the consumption of wheat flour which continues to increase. However, sorghum flour used in composite flour will provide dry, sandy and crumb properties that are hard so fast, so that other processes need to be done to improve its characteristics. Soaking and germination can reduce antinutrient compounds and can also increase nutritional value. The purpose of this study was to obtain the time and temperature of germination and the interaction between the two to produce good sorghum sprout flour. The research method used was an experimental method using Factorial Randomized Group Design (RGD). The first factor is the germination temperature (A) with 2 levels, namely A1 = 25 °C and A2 = 35 °C. The second factor is the time of germination (B) with 3 levels, namely B1 = 12 hours, B2 = 24 hours and B3 = 36 hours. Combinations carried out there are 6, each combination is repeated 3 times. Germination with variations in the time and temperature of germination did not show a significant effect on the physical characteristics of sorghum sprout flour. The best rendement and color values were found in the germination treatment at 25C at 36 hours ie 98.02% and 72.36% while the best fineness modulus was found in the germination treatment at 35 °C for 36 hours ie 2.43.

Investigation of the possibility of combined macro and micro test baking instrumentation methodology in wheat research

The aim of this research was to investigate the possibility of the instrumentation of baking tests on different scales and compare the results with a conventional, internationally standardized test baking method, using the flours of ten Hungarian winter wheat varieties.Baking quality of the wheat flours was tested on micro- and macro-scale using a semi-automatic test baking methodology developed by our department and Labintern Ltd. Standard straight-dough baking test was performed according to ICC Nr. 131 Standard Method. Characterization of baking performance included the determination of baking loss and specific volume, as well as digital image analysis and texture profile analysis of the bread crumb.The presented semi-automatic test baking method qualifies as one of the first instrumental laboratory bread baking methodologies, which enables the implementation of baking tests both on macro (250 g flour/loaf)- and micro-scale (10 g flour/loaf). The results of macro and micro baking tests obtained by the instrument were comparable with the standard method mainly in crumb properties such as crumb hardness. The methods basically differed in specific volume and crust color, which may indicate some fundamental differences between these methodologies.

Functional whole wheat breads: Compelling internal architecture

In this study, X-ray micro-computed tomography scanning coupled with image analysis was used to investigate the influence of bread formulation on micro-structural characteristics of bread particularly its crumb. Results for standard whole wheat flour bread (WWB) and two functional breads formulated by partial replacement of whole wheat flour by 10% (FGF10) and 20% (FGF20) cryo-ground fermented green gram flour showed a significant variation in their micro-structural properties. For example, the total volume of bread crumb and total surface area of pores were nearly reduced by 34% in FGF10 and 71% in FGF20 samples compared to WWB. Further, height of loaf along with crumb properties: porosity, total number of pores, interconnectivity index, diameter of open pore, and volume of open pore followed the order WWB > FGF10 > FGF20. These variations have resulted in 11.85–16.75% reduction in specific loaf volume of functional breads compared to WWB. Conversely, crumb properties such as wall thickness, volume fraction of solid phase, percentage of closed pore, diameter of closed pore, and volume of closed pore showed reverse trend resulting in rise in crumb hardness of functional breads by 22.57–37.21% compared to WWB. Three-dimensional images of breads also supported the quantitative results.

Improvement of technological properties of wheat flour due to effects of thermal and mechanical treatments

Secondary modification of roller milled wheat flour by planetary ball milling has been shown to have considerable effects on the chemical and microstructural properties of wheat flour. In this study, the effects of ball milling on the dough properties and the baking quality of flours from two wheat cultivars were studied. Several milling parameters such as rotation speed and grinding time were systematically altered and the modified flours were analyzed in the farinograph, by microscale extension tests with dough and gluten, and baking tests (10 g of flour). Modification by ball milling strongly increased the water absorption of the flours due to starch damage and, at high modification intensity, partial gelatinization of starch. In spite of increasing water absorption, the dough development time of intensely treated flour increased by a factor of 2.4 compared to untreated flour. However, the amount of wet gluten as well as the gluten index after moderate treatment was quite similar to the values of the base flour. With increasing intensity of modification, the specific loaf volume continuously decreased to less than 30% of the initial value. Crumb properties such as firmness and cohesiveness were also negatively affected. However, a positive effect was seen, when weakly modified flour was mixed with untreated flour. The addition of 7.5% weakly modified flour significantly increased the specific loaf volume as compared to the plain base flour. These findings show that weak mechanical modification can transform wheat flour functionality for baking applications to improve the bread quality.

Improving changes in physical, sensory and texture properties of cake supplemented with purified amylase from fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) seeds

Three different concentrations of a purified maltogenic amylase (FSA) from fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) seeds were incorporated into the cake formulation. The addition of FSA at 0.003, 0.005 and 0.01U/g of cake increased the loaf volume, the number of holes (gas cells), and water absorption. Textural study revealed an improvement of the cake quality, resulting in the decrease of hardness and the increase of cohesion. Environmental scanning electron microscopy was performed on different cakes to evaluate the influence of amylase activity on microstructure. The microstructure observation showed that the FSA had a beneficial effect on starch and crumb properties. The sensory evaluation supported this result and confirmed the beneficial effect of adding FSA on cake odor and crust color. In addition, relationships between physical parameters, instrumentally textural parameters, and sensory characteristics of cake treated with FSA might be used for constructing linear regression analysis models to predict overall acceptability. In fact, overall acceptability of treated cake with FSA at 0.01U appeared to be the most remarkable one and could be a promising technology to improve the quality of cake.

Evaluation of Textural and Structural Properties of Barbari Bread During Storage

This study was performed using three Barbari flours (strong, medium, and weak) with different physical, chemical, and rheological properties. Determination of texture firmness of Barbari breads (A, B, and C, made of strong, medium, and weak flours, respectively) during storage was carried out with a texture analyzer and evaluating the bread crumb properties and changes during storage with a nondestructive ultrasonic technique. The bread microstructure was assessed with scanning electron microscopy, and the general process of starch gelatinization and retrogradation was evaluated with differential scanning calorimetry. The bread sensory properties were evaluated by 10 trained panelists. Barbari A, made from strong flour, had less firmness, lower transition of ultrasonic wave velocity, lower value of elastic modulus, reduced value of enthalpy, lower average temperature, larger pore diameter and area of images, and higher point total in sensory evaluation than Barbari B and Barbari C, particularly the latter, as storage time progressed. Barbari A's desirable quality characterization and longer shelf life were owing to the qualities of the flour, which enabled the production of dough with the appropriate properties. Eventually, the results of device‐based and sensory tests were significantly correlated. Ultrasonic nondestructive testing is recommended over other methods for assessing the texture, cell structure, and elastic properties of bread after baking and during storage, because it is fast, nondestructive, and less expensive than other methods and can be used during production.

Cake Flour Chlorination and Alternative Treatments (Review)

In order to produce satisfactory cake, ingredients must be balanced accurately. Flour acts as building structure that contributes in the crumb properties. Chlorine treatment of soft wheat flour has been widely used since the 1920s. The functional effect of chlorination is partially de-polymerizing and oxidizing of flour starch. Oxidized starch granules are able to swell more rapidly after the starch reaches the gelatinization temperature and the resulting batter system will be adequately viscous to support the cake’s structure without collapsing. Batter expansion is superior for treated flours, even at the lowest chlorination rate, than for untreated flour. Alternatives to chlorine treatment need to be developed because of the potential carcinogenic effect of chlorination. Egg albumin contributes strength to cake crumb and improves cake volume. Acceptable cake volume can be achieved by heating but the dryer, stiffer crumb that springs back upon compression is not produced by heated flours. Xanthan gum L-cysteine, and hydrogen peroxide plus peroxidase to heat-treated flour and obtained volumes equivalent to cakes produced using chlorine-treated flour. Ozone treatments also are applied in cake flour with some benefits instead of chlorination.

Wheat bread enriched with organic calcium salts and inulin. A bread quality study.

The objective of this work was to study quality parameters of enriched wheat bread with calcium citrate (Ca3CI2) or lactate (CaLA2) and inulin (In), also to optimize bread formulation. Fermentation time (tf), specific volume (Vs), browning index of crust (BI) and crumb properties (moisture, alveolus, texture) were studied. Generally, tf and Vs decreased with prebiotic increment. Ca3CI2 did not change Vs at equal inulin quantity, whereas with CaLA2 smaller breads were obtained (at 6.5% In). Moisture of crumbs decreased with an increase in Ca3CI2 (at ≤ 6.5%); while for CaLA2 was more influenced by the prebiotic. Up to 6.5% In, the addition of both salts decreased crumb firmness and increased cohesiveness. Using a desirability function, the optimum calcium-prebiotic bread obtained with Ca3CI2 contained 2.40g/kg Ca and 7.49% In and with CaLA2 presented 1.33g/kg Ca and 4.68% In. Breads of high-quality with higher calcium and prebiotic quantity were able to obtain with Ca3CI2.

Effect of heat treatment of sorghum flour on the functional properties of gluten-free bread and cake

The effects of heat treatment on sorghum flour functionality in gluten-free bread and cake were investigated. The sorghum flour was subjected to dry-heat at two temperatures (95 °C and 125°) for 15, 30, and 45 min. The physicochemical and sensory properties of heat-treated, gluten-free bread and cake were studied and compared with control bread and cake. Flour heat treatment affects viscosity which has an important role in final cake and bread quality. Heating the flour at 125 °C for 30 min produced bread with the highest specific volume (3.08 mL/g) and the most cells per slice area (50.38 cells/cm2). This treatment also produced cakes with the highest volume (72.17 cc) and most cells per slice area (79.18 cells/cm2). The control sorghum flour produced breads and cakes with low volume, poor crumb properties, and dense textures. Additionally, cake and bread made from this heat treatment were more acceptable than the controls in consumer testing. The overall acceptability score for cake made with heat treated sorghum flour was 6.65 compared to 5.98 for control. The overall acceptability score for bread was 5.05 and 4.76 with heat treated and control flour respectively. These results can assist in advancing the quality of sorghum-based gluten-free foods for the celiac consumers.

Stabilisation of gummy gingerbread quality during storage

The relevance of searching for solutions, aimed at slowing the staling of bakery products is shown in the paper. The most common ways to ensure freshness of these products, one of which is using waxy wheat flour, starch of which consists only of amylopectin, are considered. Based on the analysis of changes in physicochemical quality indicators of gummy gingerbreads, crumbliness of crumb, its hydrophilic and structural-mechanical properties during storage, the feasibility of using waxy wheat flour in the technology of gummy gingerbreads to stabilize their quality characteristics during storage is shown. Longer preservation of freshness - slowing the moisture loss, less intense change of crumbliness and hydrophilic properties of the crumb, preserving softer consistency of gingerbread products using the amylose-free flour testifies to slowing their staling during storage. This is caused by the technological properties and composition of waxy wheat flour – high water-absorbing and water-binding abilities, lower starch gelatinization temperature, high autolytic activity and starch retrogradation slowing as compared to baking wheat flour. It is found that using waxy wheat flour is one of the effective ways to solve the problem of fast staling of gummy gingerbreads.

Combined Effect of Xylanase, Ascorbic and Citric Acid in Regulating the Quality of Bread Made From Organically Grown Spelt Cultivars

AbstractThe present study was aimed at improving bread‐making performance of two spelt cultivars from organic production differing in dough rheological properties. For this purpose, a small composite design was employed to study the combined effect of xylanase (XYL), ascorbic (ASC) and citric (CIT) acid on bread characteristics and, finally, to optimize their doses. In both cultivars, XYL exerted improving effects on specific volume and crumb firmness. In stronger spelt cultivar, there was a significant ASC/XYL synergistic effect on improving loaf volume and crumb properties. CIT showed crumb softening effect in both cultivars and increased crumb resilience (weaker spelt being more sensitive). Optimized formulation contained (in mg/kg): 50 ASC/90 CIT/60 XYL for stronger and 20 ASC/10 CIT/120 XYL for weaker spelt cultivar. The optimized formulations allowed substantial increases in specific volume (by 45%) and crumb resilience (30%) for stronger and crumb softening (36%) for weaker spelt cultivar.Practical ApplicationsSpelt wheat is an important cereal in organic cultivation and spelt products are highly demanded by health‐conscious customers. Most commonly, spelt is processed into flour and further into bread. Technologically, spelt is impaired in comparison to common bread wheat, although high diversity exists in bread‐making potential within cultivars. In practice, it is not rare that spelt bread‐making results in production of unappealing, small bread loaves with dense, crumbly structure. Considering the much higher price of spelt bread, low quality of loaves may diminish its valorization in spite of its unique nutritional and health properties. This work presents that by combining improvers based on enzyme (xylanase), ascorbic and citric acid, which are permitted in organic foods, it is possible to substantially improve spelt bread volume and crumb properties.

Effect of sorghum flour composition and particle size on quality properties of gluten-free bread

White, food-grade sorghum was milled to flour of varying extraction rates (60%, 80%, and 100%) and pin-milled at different speeds (no pin-milling, low-speed, and high-speed) to create flours of both variable composition and particle size. Flours were characterized for flour composition, total starch content, particle size distribution, color, damaged starch, and water absorption. Bread was characterized for specific volume, crumb structure properties, and crumb firmness. Significant differences were found (P < 0.05) in the composition of sorghum flours of varying extraction rate, most notably for fiber and total starch contents. Flour particle size and starch damage were significantly impacted by extraction rate and speed of pin-milling. Water absorption increased significantly with increasing extraction rate and pin-milling speed. Breads produced from 60% extraction flour had significantly higher specific volumes, better crumb properties, and lower crumb firmness when compared with all other extractions and flour types. The specific volume of bread slices ranged from 2.01 mL/g (100% extraction, no pin-milling) to 2.54 mL/g (60% extraction, low-speed pin-milling), whereas the firmness ranged from 553.28 g (60% extraction, high-speed pin-milling) to 1096.26 g (commercial flour, no pin-milling). The bread characteristics were significantly impacted by flour properties, specifically particle size, starch damage, and fiber content (P < 0.05).

Effect of Catfish Bone Paste on the Properties of Steamed Bread

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of different levels of catfish bone paste to flour on the physicochemical, textural and crumb structure properties of steamed bread. Six different levels (0, 1, 3, 5, 7,10 %) of catfish bone paste to flour were used in the formulation of the steamed bread. The results showed that the weight loss and TTA of steamed bread decreased with an increase in the levels of the catfish bone paste. On the other hand, the pH increased with an increase in the levels of the catfish bone paste. The specific volume, hardness, chewiness and gas cell structure in the crumb of steamed bread with catfish bone paste at 5% supplementation level were better. Thus, a value of 5% catfish bone paste was considered a better level for incorporation into the steamed bread.

The impact of baking time and bread storage temperature on bread crumb properties

Two baking times (9 and 24min) and storage temperatures (4 and 25°C) were used to explore the impact of heat exposure during bread baking and subsequent storage on amylopectin retrogradation, water mobility, and bread crumb firming. Shorter baking resulted in less retrogradation, a less extended starch network and smaller changes in crumb firmness and elasticity. A lower storage temperature resulted in faster retrogradation, a more rigid starch network with more water inclusion and larger changes in crumb firmness and elasticity. Crumb to crust moisture migration was lower for breads baked shorter and stored at lower temperature, resulting in better plasticized biopolymer networks in crumb. Network stiffening, therefore, contributed less to crumb firmness. A negative relation was found between proton mobilities of water and biopolymers in the crumb gel network and crumb firmness. The slope of this linear function was indicative for the strength of the starch network.