Crude Wax Research Articles

Pre-Extension Demonstration of Crude Beeswax Extraction Technology in Ilu Gelan District, West Shewa Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

The current bee wax production system remains underdeveloped among smallholder beekeepers due to lack the necessary expertise and methods for processing crude bee wax in Ethiopia. The study was conducted in the Ilu Gelan district with the goal of raising knowledge about the importance of bee wax for income generation. The farmers’ research extension group (FREG) was employed to demonstrate the method, with one FREG of 20 beekeepers at each appropriate site (kebele), for a total of 40 beekeepers. Crude beeswax materials, such as broken or dried combs and <i>sefef</i>, were used to produce pure bees wax blocks. Data were gathered from primary and secondary sources in both qualitative and quantitative forms. In-depth key informant interviews, focus groups discussion, and observations were used for qualitative data collection. Likewise checklists used for quantitative data. The qualitative data was examined using narrative response and content analysis approaches. Nonetheless, the quantitative data was analyzed using statistical tools for descriptive and inferential purposes. Overall, 58 participants obtained the knowledge required to act as future resources in the study area. The submerged crude beeswax rendering method yielded an average of 3.67 kg and 3.28 kg of pure beeswax from 10 kg of comb wax and <i>sefef</i>, respectively. A statistically significant (P< 0.05) yield difference was seen between submerged and sack jute methods of crude wax extraction using comb wax. Thus, through education and information sharing, it is essential to ensure technology's long-term survival in potential areas and with more beneficiaries through development efforts.

Reflux extraction with saponification of crude wax from sugarcane filter cake for policosanol production

Abstract Filter cake, a by-product in the sugar industry, has significant amount of wax containing policosanol which can be extracted using proper method and solvent. Policosanol is a mixture of high molecular weight aliphatic primary alcohols and was reported to reduce cardiovascular diseases. This study explored the use of hot ethanol reflux extraction to recover the crude wax from the filter cake followed by saponification for policosanol purification. Crude wax yield of 84.5 mg crude wax/g filter cake was obtained using reflux extraction at 60° C, 500 rpm and 12 mL absolute ethanol/g filter cake. The maximum crude wax yield obtained from Soxhlet extraction was 121.88 ± 0.46 mg crude wax/g dry filter cake, which corresponds to 69.33% recovery. Using a two-level factorial design, the effects of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration (0.1 M and 1 M), reaction time (30 minutes and 60 minutes)and reaction temperature (30 °C and 60 °C) on the policosanol yield during saponification were determined. Results showed that NaOH concentration and temperature have significant effects on policosanol yield while reaction time alone is insignificant. Increasing both the reaction time and NaOH concentration can lead to an increase in policosanol yield. The highest yield of 1.234 ± 0.322 mg policosanol/g crude wax after saponification was obtained at 60 °C for 60 minutes with 1 M NaOH. This is twice the amount of policosanol recovered as compared to 0.583 ± 0.026 mg policosanol/g crude wax without saponification.

Advancements in crude wax deposition management: An overview of chemical, physical, and microbial methods

Advancements in crude wax deposition management: An overview of chemical, physical, and microbial methods

Isolation of nanocellulose from Dodonaea viscosa plant: structural and thermal properties

Abstract In this research work, cellulose was isolated from Dodonaea viscosa plant by means of various chemical processes followed by the preparation of nanocellulose through sulfuric acid hydrolysis. These chemical processes begin with the removal of non-cellulosic material such as lignin, pectin, crude wax, and hemicellulose followed by alkaline treatment and chlorine-free bleaching methods. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed the successful isolation of cellulosic material after removing hemicellulose, lignin, and other extractives. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) elucidated the thermal degradation profile of the cellulose-based materials obtained after various chemical procedures at each step. Additionally, nanocellulose was prepared from cellulosic material using acid hydrolysis, and its structural and thermal properties were discussed. Nanocellulose extraction from the lignocellulosic biomass sources and its further utilization has been the subject of intensive research as the global community needs the use of green chemistry principles in recent life. Nanocellulosic material due to its unique characteristics and properties is of great importance and has many applications in various industries, including materials science and engineering.

Organic Extraction, Purification and Evaluation of Long Chain Fatty Alcohol from Saccharum officinarum of Sugar Refinery Waste for Human Wellness

The current study has explored an extraction and purification method for 1-octacosanol from sugarcane waste, commonly known as press mud, through the application of SCFE by the unique concept of solid-solid and liquid-liquid extraction which increases content and decreases impurity which is an extra advantage at purification stage by help of green solvent instead any carcinogenic solvent, which reduce process time, increase content and environment friendly. The isolated compounds were characterized by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection, which shows 50% content of octacosanol in the final product. Novel refinement technique through hot ethanolic reflux method has substantially increased the octacosanol assay to ≥ 50% with more than 67% purity from the crude wax assay of 26% obtained by the current method of extraction. The identity of said compound was further authenticated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Diffraction scanning calorimetry (DSC) and FTIR studies. The purity of the octacosanol obtained was ≤70% and the conversion recovery of octacosanol was 80.04% by the reflux method, thereby representing the simplicity of the above process for industrial feasibility. The current process represents a value addition liquid-liquid supercritical extraction with a time-saving, cost-effective, reproducible, newer, green, safe, and sustainable technology valorizing sugarcane waste for a high-end nutraceutical

Nelumbo nucifera leaves as source of water-repellent wax: Extraction through polar and non-polar organic solvents

Nelumbo nucifera leaves are rich source of natural wax possessing super-hydrophobic properties. It provides protection to them from ecological turbulences and climatic wear and tear. In this study, various experiments have been conducted to observe the yield of extraction and the determination of various functional groups, which are present in natural wax, derived from Nelumbo nucifera leaves. The natural wax has been extracted from lotus leaves through non-polar (hexane) and polar (ethanol) solvent via different extraction methods. The superhydrophobic wax has been successfully extracted with hexane. Whereas, ethanol did not extract the water-repellent wax of lotus leaf. Considering the cumulative amount, i.e. (desired + undesired), the maceration shows the extraction of 2.9% (%w/w, through hexane) and 10.2% (%w/w, through ethanol), while it was found 2.5% (%w/w, cycle period 15 min) and 9.0% (%w/w, cycle period 26 min) respectively, in case of Soxhlet extraction technique. For this specific case of natural wax recovery from biomass (lotus leaf), the maceration (traditional method) resulted a little bit superior extraction yield in comparison to the Soxhlet extraction method for extraction of crude wax. In the case of non-polar solvent (hexane), an extraction yield of 1.97% (%w/w) through maceration method was observed while in the case of non-polar solvent (ethanol), an extraction yield of 1.62% (%w/w) through Soxhlet extraction was observed. The TLC analysis on both types of extracts was performed. For the detection of various hydrocarbon chains in the crude wax extracts, FTIR was also performed. Topography of wax surface and wax-coated waterproof fabric was compared through SEM.

Flower surface wax chemicals in green gram help to stimulate oviposition in Spilosoma obliqua within short distances

AbstractLarvae of Spilosoma obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) feed on leaves and flowers of green gram (or mung bean), Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek (Fabaceae), and thereby reduce yield in India. Previously, we demonstrated that leaf surface waxes from three green gram cultivars – PDM 54 (PDM), Pusa Baisakhi (PUSA), and Samrat (SAM) – served as short‐range attractants and oviposition stimulants in S. obliqua. In this study, we aimed to find out whether flower surface waxes have similar roles. We identified the alkanes and free fatty acids in flower surface wax of the three cultivars, created representative blends of synthetic compounds, and tested the effects of crude wax and various blends on attraction and oviposition of S. obliqua. Twenty‐two n‐alkanes (n‐C13 to n‐C36) were identified in PDM, and 23 in the other two cultivars; pentadecane was predominant. Fifteen free fatty acids (C12:0 to C22:0) were detected in the three cultivars; palmitoleic acid (in PDM and PUSA) and pentadecanoic acid (in SAM) were predominant. In Y‐tube olfactometer bioassays, females were attracted to 1 mg flower surface wax of the three cultivars, as well as to blends composed of 3–7 compounds representative of the three varieties (PDM: tricosane, pentacosane, heptacosane, nonacosane, palmitoleic acid, linolenic acid, and stearic acid; PUSA: heptacosane, nonacosane, and stearic acid; and SAM: heptacosane, linolenic acid, and stearic acid). In dual choice tests, the females did not distinguish between surface wax of a variety and its representative synthetic blend. Also, they did not distinguish between the three cultivars. Results of oviposition assays were similar: 1 mg flower surface wax, as well as synthetic blends, stimulated egg laying, but the numbers of eggs were similar in the presence of surface wax of a variety vs. its representative synthetic blend. Also, oviposition was not differentially affected by cultivar. Thus, as in leaves, flower surface waxes act as short‐range attractants and oviposition stimulants in S. obliqua. The blends are potentially of use to develop lures as part of integrated pest management strategies.

Performance study on solar still using nano disbanded phase change material (NDPCM)

The current work examines the enactment of a traditional single sloped type of solar still in the presence of crude wax as an organic phase changing material (PCM) and a low mass of nano-zinc oxide (ZnO) particles disbanded crude wax as NDPCM in terms of daily potable water output. To accomplish this goal, three identical solar stills were planned and constructed. Among these, one was an unchanged traditional still (Normal Still), another still was combined with crude wax based PCM (CW Still), and a third still was amalgamated with NDPCM (NDPCM Still). Earlier, the NDPCM was formed by combining 1.0 percent mass of zinc oxide nanoparticles with enough quantity of crude wax. The tests were carried-out in March 2021 at 11.0168° N, 76.9558° E. The results indicated that the addition of crude wax and specifically, the NDPCM increased the output of clean water by 50.24 percent and 65.17 percent, respectively.

Experimental analysis of the metal roofed industrial building using nano-silica disbanded crude wax (NDCW)

The increased daytime temperature upsurges the energy need of the buildings for space cooling, particularly on days with strong sun exposure. The building's roof adds far more to this reason by allowing a big amount of heat to flow-in during the day. Additionally, single-storey structures with metal roofs allow for increased heat penetration, and so enhance the building's overall heat gain. They could do so by increasing the cooling load in order to achieve human comfort. The present work involved conducting an experiment to see whether a crude wax based Nano-silica (SiO2) Disbanded Phase Changing Material (NDCW) might be used to lower the internal temperature of a metal roofed single-story industrial structure effectively. This approach attempted to minimize the building's total cooling load, hence reducing the amount of conventional energy required. The research was conducted using a scaled-down model of the planned building. The trials were done in three phases: normal roof (Normal Roof) without crude wax, with crude wax in the roof (CW Roof), and with NDCW inside the roof (NDCW Roof). The NDCW was prepared by disbanding 1.0% volume of nano-silica within the crude wax. The findings from the investigations shown that encapsulating crude wax and NDCW under the metal roofing of a single-storey structure significantly lowered the exterior roof’s temperature, inner roof’s temperature, and further enhanced the thermal comfort of the indoor building space. With the assistance of crude wax and NDCW, the daytime mean internal space temperature was decreased by 5 °C and 6 °C, respectively. Further, the corresponding daytime peak was diminished by 10.5 °C and 12.5 °C with crude wax and NDCW, respectively.

Crude Wax Extracted from Rice Bran Oil Improves Oleogel Properties and Oxidative Stability

AbstractCrude wax extracted from rice bran oil (RBO) is used to improve the oleogel properties and oxidative stability of RBO. The effect of crude rice bran wax (CrBW) on the formation characteristics and oxidative stability of oleogels is discussed. The results show that oleogels can be formed with 7.0 wt% CrBW at 20 °C. As the concentration of CrBW increases from 7.0 to 11.0 wt%, the hardness and solid fat content (SFC) of the oleogels increase significantly, and the oleogels are primarily β' crystals. Moreover, oleogel crystals formed with 5 and 7 wt% CrBW are flocculent; when the amount included is 9%, the oleogel crystals are transformed into long dendrites, and the density rises. After 90 days of storage at 20 °C, the peroxide value of oleogels formed with 9.0 wt% CrBW slowly rises from 3.21 to 6.52 mmol kg−1.Practical Applications: Oleogels prepared here by CrBW and RBO are an innovative structural lipid without trans fats. Useful information on the rich fats and nutrients in CrBW is provided, which reduces the production cost and improves the industrial production capacity.

Chemical modification of montan resin by peracetic acid and agricultural application of its modified products

ABSTRACT Montan resin (MR) is a by-product produced during the refinement process of montan wax extracted from lignite and has no usage yet. Chemical modification is an effective method to change the material property for expanding or converting the application area of the material itself. Our previous study found that the high hydrophobicity of MR is the primary limiting factor for its utilization in agriculture. Based on this point, this study attempted to chemically modify MR using the oxidation of peracetic acid, resulting that the MR hydrophilicity was significantly improved, and a water-soluble product (WSP) was obtained. The optimized oxidation conditions of MR, including the reaction temperature (X1), reaction time (X2), weight ratio of oxidant and montan resin (X3), and oxidant concentration (X4), were determined using single-factor experiments and response surface analysis. The modification degree was evaluated using elemental and oil-water partition coefficient analyses, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), revealing that the oil-water partition coefficient of the modified product decreased and that the number of chemical constituents with oxygen-containing functional groups clearly increased after modification. Furthermore, the WSP was tested its effects on germination and seedling growth of the wheat seed. Compared with the control group, the WSP showed a promoting effect on the growth and germination of wheat. The WSP concentrations of 600 mg·L−1 and 300 mg·L−1 had the most substantial effect on the root and seedling growth of wheat, respectively. Implications: Montan resin, a useless by-product produced from crude montan wax, was chemically modified via oxidation of peracetic acid. Its hydrophilicity was significantly improved, and a water-soluble product was obtained after the chemical modification. The optimized oxidation conditions of montan resin were determined using single-factor experiments and response surface analysis. The amount of chemical constituents with oxygen-containing functional groups increased in the modified products after modification, as determined by IR and GC-MS analysis, among other methods. The water-soluble modified product showed an obvious effect in promoting growth and germination of wheat at 600 mg·L-1 and 300 mg·L-1, respectively.

Development of a nanostructured filter for pyrolysis wax purification: Effects of particulate filter aids

Wax obtained from the pyrolysis of polyethylene waste can contain inorganic contaminants and must be purified before application. We evaluated different filter aids (perlite, sand, and rice husk ash) for the filtration of a crude wax and a pyrolysis wax through a filter medium that was coated with nylon 6 nanofibers to improve filtration efficiency. We first examined the performance of the filter aids in improving crude wax filtration, with the filtration time, temperature, and pressure held constant at 1h, 170°C, and 2.5bar, respectively. Oily wax was then produced by pyrolysis of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) waste in the temperature range 425⿿475°C. The best filter aid was perlite, which had a filtrate production rate of 5.47ÿ10⿿5m3/h. The highest oily wax yield (87.8%) was achieved at a pyrolysis temperature of 425°C. The assembly comprising the filter medium coated with nylon 6 nanofibers plus perlite as a filter aid was most suitable for removing impurities from the oily wax generated by the HDPE pyrolysis as it achieved a purification efficiency of 99.9%.

Purification of crude wax using a filter medium modified with a nanofiber coating

The presence of inorganic substances in the composition of crude wax decreases its commercial value, necessitating purification of the product. A new physical surface treatment for filter media involving the application of nanofibers of Nylon-6 polymer was developed using the Forcespinning® equipment. The performance of the nanofiber-coated filter was compared with the results obtained for other filter media of the same composition (nonwoven aramid fiber fabric), one without physical treatment, and another treated using singeing. An experimental design was carried out to find the optimum operating temperature and pressure (170°C and 2.5bar, respectively). The filtrate volume, specific resistance of the filter cake, and filter medium resistance were determined, keeping the filtration time, temperature, and pressure constant at 1h, 170°C, and 2.5bar, respectively. The nanofiber-coated filter showed the best performance, providing a higher wax filtrate volume and greater retention of inorganics, with values of 5.39×10−5m3 and 99.6%, respectively.

Effect of drag reducer and pour point depressant on the wax deposition of crude oil pipeline

ABSTRACTIn this paper, the data of wax precipitation before and after the addition of the additives showed that the addition of the drag reducing agent (DRA) and the pour point depressant (PPD) cannot change the wax appearance temperature (WAT) of crude oil. When the dosage of DRA is small, the DRA cannot increase, stop, or slow down the precipitation of wax crystals. The addition of PPDs has no influence on the amount of precipitated wax crystals. From the GPC analysis, the molecular weight of the wax deposit samples in Linpu pipeline is from 500 to 76,800, which indicates that there is no enrichment of DRA in wax deposit samples. The results of IR show that the C˭O group was not detected in the wax deposit sample of the Wei Jing pipeline, which indicates that there is no enrichment of the PPDs in wax deposit samples. The results showed that the DRA and PPD have no obvious effect on crude oil pipeline wax deposition.

Towards novel adsorptive nanomaterials: Synthesis of Co2+Mo6+ LDH for sulfur and aromatic removal from crude petrolatum

In the present work Co/Mo(CO3)2−-LDH material of highly energetic surface was prepared by controlled titration of ammonium carbonate and ammonium hydroxide against Co and Mo cations at elevated temperatures, while different analytical techniques were applied to proof the chemical constitution and surface features of the material as XPS (X-ray Photoelectric Spectroscopy) in addition to XRF metal analysis, FT-IR, SEM, XRD, DSC-TGA and N2 adsorption–desorption isotherm. The highly energetic surface due to formation of 4+ surface charge in the brucite layer between Co and Mo as confirmed by XPS was practically ensured when the freshly prepared Co2+Mo6+-LDH dried at 60°C overnight without any activation has been applied as a novel adsorbent for the removal of the undesirable compounds (sulfur and aromatics compounds) from crude waxes. Suez crude petrolatum has been used during this study. Depending on the experimental data, we were successful to prepare a new type of LDHs showed high ability for removing the undesirable compounds (sulfur and aromatics) from Suez crude petrolatum. Also, in the same trend it removed low melting waxes. This leads to isolation of microcrystalline waxes from petroleum wastes which used as a lubricant, rust preventive, in the manufacture of cosmetics, and in medicine as a protective dressing, emollient, and in a lot of industrial applications.

Assessment of Montan Resin on Germination and Growth of Wheat Seed

Montan resin (MR) is a by-product and waste produced during production of refined montan wax from crude montan wax and its utilization has not been studied so far. It is likely to release toxins into the air or soil, and may cause environmental pollution when MR is incinerated. Based on the preliminary study of chemical composition and analysis of trace elements in MR, its effect on germination and seedling growth of wheat seed was evaluated for exploration of its agricultural utilization for the first time. The results showed that the indicators, reflecting the effect on germination and seedling growth of wheat, increased with the concentration of MR at a range of 100–400 mg/l and decreased when the concentration was more than 400 mg/l, except relative water content in leaves and content of chlorophyll b (Chl b). It indicated that MR played the best role on germination and seedling growth at the concentration of 400 mg/l, and lots of indicators were up to the maximum. However, Chl a/Chl b ratio was optimal at 100 mg/l. This study demonstrated that MR has significant effect on wheat seed germination and seedling growth, and can be further developed for utilization as an agricultural resource.

Methylation as a method for the deep extraction processing of coal

The interaction of brown coal from the Sergeevskoe deposit with methanol under acid catalysis conditions was studied. The role of a catalyst in the processes occurring on methylation was demonstrated. The effect of intermolecular interactions on the solubility of alkylated coal was found. The individual and group compositions of the modified products were examined. It was found that the preliminary alkylating activation of coal facilitated the extraction process and increased the extraction of bitumens, waxes, and tars. Modified coal is a potential source for the production of high-quality crude mineral wax.

Modified maleic anhydride-co-octadecene copolymers as flow improver for waxy Egyptian crude oil

Polymeric flow improvers represent one of the most important chemicals used in oil industry especially with waxy crudes. The chemical structure of such chemicals is particularly important. In this study, we prepared a family of additives by chemical modification of octadecene- co -maleic anhydride copolymers (OM). The copolymerization of octadecene (OD) with maleic anhydride (MA) was performed at variable ratios of OD:MA (1:1, 1:2 and 2:1). OM copolymers were chemically modified by grafting three different alcohols: dodecanol, hexadecanol or docosanol. Grafts were characterized through molecular weight using GPC, melting temperature and enthalpy of melting by DSC and chemical structure through 1 HNMR. The comb-like copolymers were assessed as flow improvers for an Egyptian waxy crude oil by measuring their performance as pour point depressants in addition to their assessment as viscosity improvers through rheological behavior. The data indicate that the additive must retain a hydrophobic–lypophobic balance, low crystallinity and matching melting temperature with that of crude wax in order to inhibit the paraffin and wax crystal depositions. • Comb-like copolymers have dual function: flow improver and pour point depressant. • Crystallinity and melting point of flow improvers are the controlling factors. • Balance in nonpolar–polar content shows significant effect on pour point depression.

A Study on the Interaction of Crude Oil Waxes With Polyacrylate Pour Point Depressants by Monte Carlo Simulation

The interaction of crude oil waxes with polyacrylate pour point depressants (PPDs) bearing different structures was investigated in detail by Monte Carlo simulation, using n-hexadecane as representative component of wax crystal. It was demonstrated that during wax precipitation the mixed energy was low when the side chain length of polyacrylate was close to that of n-hexadecane. Meanwhile, the mixed energy between polyacrylate PPDs and n-hexadecane was shown to be closely related with the polarity of building blocks of polyacrylate. Our results indicated that it is easier for polyacrylate polymers with polar building blocks to interact with n-alkanes, which would effectively inhibit wax-crystal precipitation and improve crude oil low-temperature fluidity. The simulation results provide with some knowledge for guiding the molecular design and synthesis of polyacrylate PPDs.

Use of beeswax for repair of damaged dry human bones in anatomy

Abstract Background: Beehives are made up of wax, which are the natural glandular secretions of honeybees. One such huge beehive was incidentally noticed on the wall behind the Department of Anatomy, K.V.G. Medical College Sullia in 2012. The bees had already abandoned it and there were no bees even fluttering around. So we plucking it ensured that it was excised as a whole, instead of allowing it to get biodegraded. With assistance we got it to the Department. Objective: To study the architecture of this beehive and use of its wax to repair damaged dry human bones in the Department of Anatomy. Materials and Methods: Spirit lamp, spirit, Forceps, Cutting blades, quick fix, varnish, spatula and enamel paint were used for the study. Wax melted when heated at 62-65degree Celsius. Crude wax of the beehive was placed on the damaged bone by plucking a part of it. Then the bone was given a correct shape manually. Damaged bone part was repaired artistically using a hot spatula. Results: We could repair many damaged bones with this chunk of wax. Conclusion: This is a simple, cost effective, appropriate technique of bone repair in Anatomy. Regular maintenance of bones will prevent its damage. Thus bones can be used for a long period which can ensure percolation of right information to students of Anatomy.