Crude Drug Research Articles

The pharmacognostic profiling of traditionally used medicinal plants of Northeast India and evaluation of their in-vitro anti-oxidant and anti- inflammatory potential

Aim: The current research was planned to explore the diverse pharmacognostic standards of unexplored traditionally used medicinal plants from Northeast India (Alpinia galanga, Chenopodium album, Mikania micrantha, Allium hookeri, & Eryngium foetidium). Materials and Methods: Leaves samples were collected, authenticated, elaborative studies by macroscopic, microscopic, and physicochemical characterization (As per WHO-recommended methods of standardization), and methanolic extracts were prepared. The anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory action of the leaves extracts were also resolute by the DPPH assay with butylated hydroxyl anisole as benchmark and inhibition of protein denaturation method taking diclofenac sodium as a standard drug respectively. Results: The pharmacognostic and physicochemical parameters enable to evaluate purity and avoid adulteration of the crude drugs. Methanolic extract of Eryngium foetidium(MMEF) showed better antioxidant activity and methanolic extract of Alpinia galangal(MMAG) showed profound anti-inflammatory activity amongst all extracts. Conclusion: This study showed preliminary pharmacognostic standards for traditionally used medicinal plants and therapeutic information which would be good tools for future experimental biological activity study, together with the need for drug discovery and development.

Development of Fingerprinting Method for Estimation Glycyrrhizinic acid in Ayurvedic formulation Eladi Gutika: A HPTLC approach

Eladi gutika is official in Ayurvedic formulary of India and used as a remedy for Kasa (Cough), Svasa (Asthma), Bhrama (Vertigo), Raktapitta (Bleeding disorders), Jvara (Fever), Amvata (Rheumatism) etc. The present paper is an effort to develop the routine fingerprinting method for quality control parameter of Eladi gutika by high performance thin layer chromatography using glycyrrhizinic acid as an internal standard. The HPTLC estimation was carried out with three laboratory batches and one marketed formulation Eladi gutika and crude drug containing glycyrrhizinic acid. The concentration of glycyrrhizinic acid present in raw material was found to be 8.2201±0.497w/w in G. glabra and in three identical laboratory batch of Eladi gutika EG-I, EG -II and EG -III, was found to be 1.4945 ± 0.293, 1.4963 ± 0.763%, 1.4944± 0.864w/w respectively. The glycyrrhizinic acid content in all the three different batches is found to be in close proximities with each other. The results were comparable to marketed formulations. Hence the present method is simple, sensitive, precise and accurate and can be adopted for routine fingerprinting method for quality control of Eladi gutika.

Comparative study on comprehensive quality of Xinhui chenpi by two main plant propagation techniques.

Xinhui chenpi (XHCP), the sun-dried peel of the mandarin orange, Citrus reticulata "Chachi," is the most famous crude drug, as well as a traditional seasoning in Chinese cooking. The main cultivation methods of XHCP are cutting and grafting, but it is generally considered that the quality of XHCP after cutting is superior to that obtained from plants propagated by graftings, which had a negative impact on the marketing of the finished product. In our study, a total of 25 samples of XHCP obtained from plants cultivated by either traditional methods (i.e., from cuttings) or by grafting were collected to compare the contents of four types of metabolites (essential oils, flavonoids, synephrine, and total polysaccharides) as well as antioxidant activity. The results revealed that the quality of XHCP did not decline after cutting, and marked individual differences between XHCP samples, even when prepared from plants grown in the same way. In general, grafting had no significant effect on the most essential oils components, total polysaccharides, synephrine, total flavonoids, total polymethoxylated flavones, hesperidin, nobiletin, tangeretin content, and antioxidant activity. Nevertheless, five volatile compounds can be used as potential chemical markers (p < 0.05) to distinguish between cutting XHCP and grafted XHCP, while four volatile compounds showed high content in grafted XHCP. Our study is expected to provide a theoretical basis for XHCP breeding and cultivation, and thereby further standardize the market of XHCP.

A method for determining the origin of crude drugs derived from animals using MinION, a compact next-generation sequencer.

We evaluated whether MinION, an inexpensive portable sequencer, can be used to identify the origin of crude drugs derived from animals. Standard and nonstandard crude drugs with different species of origin were examined. In addition, standards mixed with nonstandard samples were used. As a target gene, cytochrome c oxidase I was amplified and sequenced. The fast mode results had a slightly lower match ratio than high-accuracy mode, but the animals of origin were correctly determined by BLAST for all samples. For antler velvet derived from Rangifer tarandus, even when the sequences were aligned based on Cervus elaphus, the animal of origin was determined correctly. Minor contents could be detected from mixtures of two animals, if the mixtures contained at least 19:1 mtDNA when the coverage allele-fraction threshold was 0.05. By contrast, in fast mode, two sequences could not be separated due to the low accuracy of the base-calling for each read. For fieldwork, the species of origin of crude drugs could be identified with only simple DNA extraction and library preparation. Therefore, MinION appears to be a convenient tool for identifying the origins of crude drugs derived from animals.

Effects of herbal extracts on mRNA expression of intrinsic antidepressant‐related candidate factor BNIP‐3 in cultured neuronal and glial cell lines: Relationship with the Kampo concept of Qi

AbstractAimIt has been reported that the expression level of BNIP‐3 mRNA increases by antidepressants and Hochu‐ekki‐To (HET), suggesting that BNIP‐3 may be a candidate depression‐related factor. Therefore, in order to examine the relationship between BNIP‐3 and Qi, the expression levels of BNIP‐3 mRNA were examined using 22 newly extracted crude drugs which were selected from the previous library results on 120 crude drugs in the neuronal cell line N18TG‐2 and in the glial cell line C6Bu‐1.MethodsBased on the results on 120 kinds of crude drugs in a cDNA library, 22 kinds were selected and newly extracted, and then cells were re‐treated with them for a secondary assay by real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods.ResultsMany of the herbal medicines contained in HET increased BNIP‐3 mRNA expression overall. On the other hand, in the results with especially the neuronal cell line N18TG‐2, the herbal medicines that make up Oren‐gedoku‐To (OGT) and San‐o‐shashin‐To (SOST) strongly showed suppressive effects on the expression.ConclusionSince HET clinically has the effect of raising mood, while an effect of OGT and SOST is to suppress the rise of mood, the result of this study may be of interest regarding the link between control of the direction of Qi and the expression of BNIP‐3 mRNA.

A REVIEW ON HERBAL NANOPARTICLES

They have fewer side effects than modern medications, herbal medicines have been utilised extensively throughout history and are now recognised by both doctors and patients for having a superior therapeutic value. To improve patient compliance and avoid repeated administration, phyto therapeutic require a systematic method for administering the components over time. The Crude drug can be used to accomplish this. The therapeutic benefit of Crude drug is increased by reducing toxicity and boosting bioavailability, which reduces the need for repeated administration to combat non-compliance. Nanotechnology is one of these cutting-edge strategies. Herbal medication delivery methods that are smaller than a human hair could improve plant activity and solve some of the challenges that come with it in the future.

Engineered Fenofibrate as Oxidation-Sensitive Nanoparticles with ROS Scavenging and PPARα-Activating Bioactivity to Ameliorate Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease in western countries and China. Fenofibrate (FNB) can activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) to increase fatty acid oxidation and ameliorate NAFLD. However, the application of FNB is limited in clinic due to its poor water solubility and low oral bioavailability. In this study, FNB-loaded nanoparticles (FNB-NP) based on a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive peroxalate ester derived from vitamin E (OVE) and an amphiphilic conjugate 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(poly(ethylene glycol))-2000] (DSPE-PEG) were developed to enhance the preventive effects of FNB against NAFLD. In in vitro studies, FNB-NP displayed a high encapsulation efficiency of 97.25 ± 0.6% and a drug loading efficiency of 29.67 ± 0.1%, with a size of 197.0 ± 0.2 nm. FNB released from FNB-NP was dramatically accelerated in the medium with high H2O2 concentrations. Moreover, FNB-NP exhibited well storage stability and plasma stability. In pharmacokinetic (PK) studies, FNB-NP, compared with FNB crude drug, significantly increased the AUC0→t and AUC0→∞ of the plasma FNB acid by 3.3- and 3.4-fold, respectively. In pharmacodynamics (PD) studies, compared with an equal dose of FNB crude drug, FNB-NP more significantly reduced hepatic lipid deposition via facilitating FNB release in the liver and further upregulating PPARα expression in NAFLD mice. Meanwhile, oxidative stress in NAFLD was significantly suppressed after FNB-NP administration, suggesting that OVE plays a synergistic effect on antioxidation. Therefore, ROS-sensitive FNB delivery formulations FNB-NP enhance the preventive effects of FNB against NAFLD and could be further studied as a promising drug for the treatment of NAFLD in clinic.

New Drug Development strategies with special reference to the endocarp of multifaceted agriculture crop – Cocos nucifera Linn

Coconut shell botanically represents the hard endocarp from the fruit of Cocos nucifera Linn. It is the usually discarded part of the plant with folklore claim in metabolic disorders.Being an inexpensive and easily availablenatural product with ethno medicinal significance, it seems highly relevant to scientifically validate the pharmaceutical implications of the drug. Till date, the new drug development strategies based on quality and efficacy parameters for the crude drug sample of Coconut shell has not been developed. The present study was intended to develop and scientifically validate the quality, purity, safety, potency and efficacy parameters of Coconut shell and thereby exploring the new drug development strategies for the drug. Materials andmethods: The study focused on the screening ofCoconut shell based on macroscopic, microscopic, organoleptic, histo-chemicaland HPTLC studies. Results:Characteristic presence of thin walled fibres, fibrosclereids,lignins and tannins were observed in themicroscopic analysis of Coconut shell. HPTLC studies also exemplifiedthe detailed bioactive chemical profile of Coconut shell.Conclusion: The study outcome suggestsCoconut shell as a novel reliable source of bioactive phytoconstituents with broad prospective in new drug development process.

Phytochemical Content and Antioxidant Activity of Forest Honje Leaf (Etlingera Hemisphaerica (Blume) R.M. Sm)

The forest honje (Etlingera hemisphaerica (Blume) R.M.Sm) belongs to the Zingiberaceae family, and its leaves are green on top and red on the bottom. The goal of this research was to investigate the phytochemical content of forest honje leaves' crude medicine, the antioxidant activity of various extracts using the DPPH method, and the levels of flavonoids and polyphenols in forest honje leaves using AlCl3 and the Folin Ciocalteu reagent. Extraction utilizing a reflux graded technique with n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and ethanol as subsequent solvents. The antioxidant activity of each extract was determined using the reagent 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Flavonoids, polyphenols, tannins, quinones, monoterpenes-sesquiterpenoids, and steroids/triterpenoids were found in the phytochemical screening of forest honje leaf crude medicine. The antioxidant activity of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and ethanol extracts was measured in IC50 values of 637.92 ± 0.2 μg/mL, 80.55 ± 0.2 μg/mL, and 49.37 ± 0.5 μg/mL, respectively, while quercetin had an IC50 value of 7.47 ± 0.2 μg/mL. Forest honje leaves crude drug had a flavonoid content of 67.85 ± 0.5 mg QE/g crude drug and a polyphenol content of 96.0 3± 0.6 GAE/g crude drug.

Study On Boerhavia Diffusa Linn. As An Important Medicinal Plant Resource And Its Market Economy: A Review

Punarnava (Boerhavia diffusa Linn.) is a traditional medicinal herb. It is widely distributed in India as well as worldwide. This plant has wide biodiversity with 40 species. It is found in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions of the World. It has a great share in the AYUSH trading. Several herbal companies and pharma units are consuming a lot of quantity of Boerhavia crude drugs. The herbal market is dominated by Boerhavia and some many other Indian herbal products, even crude drug markets are also playing a major role in the Indian economy like Khari Bavli in Delhi, Herbal center in Dehradun, Trade Center in Bhopal and Raipur, etc. Many pharma companies are manufacturing a huge number of products that are used by people for different ailments. About 15 essential amino acids are found in the plant. Potassium nitrate and Punarnavine alkaloid are found in plenty of amount. Punarnava is used in the kidney, liver, spleen, and neural diseases. NMPB and allied agencies are trying to uplift the trade in herbal drugs in the world so that we could be able to stand first in the world.

Pharmacognostical standardization of Cassia auriculata, Centella asiatica and Zingiber officinale

Cassia auriculata, Centella asiatica and Zingiber officinale are belongs to the family Leguminosae, Apiaceae and Zingiberaceae respectively. These herbs possess abundant remedial benefits and are used traditionally to treat numerous illnesses. The standardization of these crude drugs is essential to gain information on their identity and quality. WHO recommended parameters were used to standardize the plant materials. Dried raw powder of Cassia auriculata leaf, Centella asiatica leaf and Zingiber officinale rhizome were subjected to macroscopic and microscopic evaluation followed by physicochemical evaluations such as loss on drying, ash values and extractive values. Further, the plant materials were extracted with hydroalcoholic solvent (Alcohol: Water ratio is 70:30) by cold maceration process and subjected to qualitative phytochemical investigation. The identity and purity of the plant material had been proven by its organoleptic characteristics. Detailed structural characteristics were obtained from powder microscopy. Physico-chemical parameters displayed the quality of raw powder. Qualitative phytochemical analysis showed the presence of various phytoconstituents. The pharmacognostical standardization has provided with a referential information on the identity, quality and purity of the crude drugs.

Deficit irrigation decision-making of indigowoad root based on a model coupling fuzzy theory and grey relational analysis

Water scarcity is a critical constraint to the cultivation of medicinal crops. Establishing irrigation requirements for medicinal plants is crucial for the large-scale production of crude drugs in China. To evaluate the response of indigowoad root growth to water deficit (WD) under-mulched drip irrigation, and determine the optimal deficit irrigation mode for this medicinal crop in Hexi Corridor’s desert oasis, two WD levels were applied: mild (65–75% FC [field capacity]) and moderate (55–65% FC). These treatments were implemented during the vegetative growth (VG) and fleshy-root growth (RG) stages, and sufficient water supply maintained during the other plant stages. A total of seven combined treatments were imposed, with sufficient water supply (85–75% FC) as the control treatment. From the 2-year-long (2017, 2018) field experiment’s results, 12 indicators of indigowoad root growth, yield, water consumption and quality attributes were evaluated via weighted fuzzy evaluation and a grey relation-coupling model. Results indicated that, with greater irrigation amounts throughout the plant growth period, the fuzzy evaluation value of growth, yield and water consumption indicators increased whereas their quality indicators decreased. The fuzzy evaluation value of yield indicators of V1G0 (mild WD treatment during VG) was the highest (0.1582, 0.1581), while that of growth indicators was also relatively high (0.1524, 0.1532). Fuzzy evaluation values of growth and yield indicators of V1G1 (mild WD during VG and RG) exceeded those of V1G2 (mild WD during VG and moderate WD during RG), but evaluation value of quality indicators was lower for V1G1 (0.1457, 0.1457) than V1G2 (0.1494, 15155). Based on the weighted grey relation model, the comprehensive score of V1G0 was deemed best. Therefore, to ensure both yield and quality, the V1G1 is recommended. Our results can provide a scientific basis for efficient water-saving cultivation of indigowoad root in Hexi oasis regions.

Capsicum annuum L. and its bioactive constituents: A critical review of a traditional culinary spice in terms of its modern pharmacological potentials with toxicological issues.

Capsicum annuum L., commonly known as chili pepper, is used as an important spice globally and as a crude drug in many traditional medicine systems. The fruits of C. annuum have been used as a tonic, antiseptic, and stimulating agent, to treat dyspepsia, appetites, and flatulence, and to improve digestion and circulation. The article aims to critically review the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of C. annuum and its major compounds. Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, and some carotenoids are reported as the major active compounds with several pharmacological potentials especially as anticancer and cardioprotectant. The anticancer effect of capsaicinoids is mainly mediated through mechanisms involving the interaction of Ca2+ -dependent activation of the MAPK pathway, suppression of NOX-dependent reactive oxygen species generation, and p53-mediated activation of mitochondrial apoptosis in cancer cells. Similarly, the cardioprotective effects of capsaicinoids are mediated through their interaction with cellular transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channel, and restoration of calcitonin gene-related peptide via Ca2+ -dependent release of neuropeptides and suppression of bradykinin. In conclusion, this comprehensive review presents detailed information about the traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of major bioactive principles of C. annuum with special emphasis on anticancer, cardioprotective effects, and plausible toxic adversities along with food safety.

Effect of drying and processing on diterpenes and other chemical constituents of ginger.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is a perennial plant widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and its rhizomes are sometimes processed for use in traditional medicine. In Japan, "ginger" (Shokyo in Japanese) and "processed ginger" (Kankyo in Japanese) are defined as crude drugs derived from ginger rhizomes, which have different medicinal properties due to complex changes in their chemical composition during processing. The effects of processing on gingerols and shogaols are well known, but for other phytochemicals remain unclear. Therefore, the present study prepared dried ginger and processed ginger derived from three ginger cultivars (Kintoki, Kogane, and Tosa ginger) and examined the effects of drying and processing on multiple secondary metabolites. Drying showed only a limited effect on ginger chemical constituents and significantly reduced [6]-gingerol content in Tosa ginger. In contrast, processing altered content of numerous metabolites, such as terpenes and gingerol-related compounds, in addition to those gingerols and shogaols. Notably, processing reduced labdane diterpene content, including labdadienedial, aframodial, and galanolactone in all ginger cultivars. Our results show galanolactone with anti-emetic activity was abundant in dried ginger and decreased following processing, highlighting different uses between "ginger" and "processed ginger" in traditional medicine. Overall, we comprehensively clarified the impact of drying and processing on terpenes and gingerol-related compounds. These findings help reveal the varying medicinal properties among crude drugs prepared from Z. officinale.

Phytochemical characterization and anti-inflammatory activity of a water extract of Gentiana purpurea roots

Ethnopharmacological relevanceGentiana purpurea was one of the most important medicinal plants in Norway during the 18th and 19th centuries, and the roots were used against different types of gastrointestinal and airway diseases. Aim of the studyTo explore the content of bioactive compounds in a water extract from the roots, a preparation commonly used in traditional medicine in Norway, to assess the anti-inflammatory potential, and furthermore to quantify the major bitter compounds in both roots and leaves. Materials and methodsG. purpurea roots were boiled in water, the water extract applied on a Diaion HP20 column and further fractionated with Sephadex LH20, reverse phase C18 and normal phase silica gel to obtain the low molecular compounds. 1D NMR, 2D NMR, and ESI-MS were used for structure elucidation. HPLC-DAD analysis was used for quantification. The inhibition of TNF-α secretion in ConA stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was investigated. ResultsEleven compounds were isolated and identified from the hot water extract of G. purpurea roots. Gentiopicrin, amarogentin, erythrocentaurin and gentiogenal showed dose-dependent inhibition of TNF-α secretion. Gentiopicrin is the major secondary metabolite in the roots, while sweroside dominates in the leaves. ConclusionsThe present work gives a comprehensive overview of the major low-molecular weight compounds in the water extracts of G. purpurea, including metabolites produced during the decoction process, and show new anti-inflammatory activities for the native bitter compounds as well as the metabolites produced during preparation of the crude drug.

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING WITH LC-HRMS PROFILING AND IN VITRO BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF ARGYREIA CUNEATA (L.) AND ARGYREIA SETOSA (L.).

Objective: The present study was designed for phytochemical screening and biological activities of Argyreia cuneata (L.) and Argyreia setosa (L.) medicinal plants. Methods: The mature leaves of A. cuneata (L.) and A. setosa (L.) were extracted with methanol (Ac-Me, As-Me) and ethyl acetate (Ac-EA, As-EA) solvent followed by qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated by agar well diffusion method, whereas the activities such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory were determined by in vitro methods. Liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectroscopy (LC-HRMS) was used to recognize the bioactive components. Results: The highest phenolic content (0.840±0.130 mg GAE/ml extract) reported from As-Me and for flavonoids 0.128±0.012 mg QE/ml from Ac- EA. The Ac-Me exhibited higher inhibition zone against all the bacteria used for study. In antioxidant activity, Ac-Me and Ac-EA report highest 2,2 dipheny l,1 picryl hydrazine (IC50=0.580±0.012 mg/ml) and nitric oxide radical scavenging potential (IC50=0.772±0.059 mg/ml), respectively. For antidiabetic activity, As-Me showed highest α-amylase inhibition activity as well as glucose adsorption. In anti-inflammatory activity, Ac-EA exhibits highest (IC50=0.529±0.009 mg/ml) protein denaturation inhibition and Ac-Me showed highest (91.56±1.96%) HRBC hemolysis inhibition. The LC-HRMS analysis of methanolic extract reports the majority of phenolic compounds. Conclusion: The study showed that the plants A. cuneata (L.) and A. setosa (L.) are well exploited and can be used for the source of potent natural bioactive components. This study also may thereby provide an insight in screening of crude drug.

Pharmacognostic standardization and qualitative analysis of Gymnosporia senegalensis

This study aims to evaluate the pharmacognostic parameters of different parts of Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. These parameters play a vital role in the traditional medicine system for administering the drug and their therapeutic effects on various ailments. Standardization parameters include sequential extract preparation, physicochemical studies (ash value, moisture content, pH, fluorescence analysis), and phytochemical screening of the three parts of G. senegalensis. Various macro and microelements (in ppm) were estimated by using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Total ash content (3.04±0.02), water-soluble ash (2.63±0.01), and insoluble acid ash (0.72±0.01) were found to be the highest in the leaf. Foreign organic matter was observed higher in stem (0.07±0.04) followed by bark and leaf. The moisture content was found lowest in bark (2.02±0.01), preventing microbial growth. The pH of the crude drug of plant parts is weakly acidic, ranging from pH 5.33 to 5.96 at 1 % and 4.93 to 6.03 at 10 %. Fluorescence results were also helpful in detecting the substituents and adulterants and assessing the crude drugs qualitatively. The present study revealed the presence of various primary and secondary metabolites (terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponin) in high and moderate amounts in the extracts of different parts of the plant. The stem and bark also showed a reasonable presence of macro and microelements (As, Cr, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, and Cu). The complete analysis provides valuable information for the quality assurance of G. senegalensis as a crude drug for preparing formulations of herbal medications.

Development of fingerprinting method for Siddha formulation Nilaavaarai chooranam: A HPTLC approach

Selective and efficient analytical methods are required not only for quality assurance but also for authentication of herbal formulations. Fingerprint method for Nilaavaarai Chooranam with TLC Densitometric Methods (HPTLC) using piperine as an internal standard was developed. The HPTLC estimation was carried out with three laboratory batches and one marketed formulation of Nilaavaarai Chooranam and crude drug containing piperine. The concentration of piperine present in raw material was found to be 2.9836±0.497w/w in Piper nigrum and in three identical laboratory batch of Nilaavaarai Chooranam NC-I, NC-II and N-III, was found to be 0.1761 ± 0.384, 0.1759 ± 0.534%, 0.1760 ± 0.019 w/w respectively. The piperine content in all the three different batches is found to be in close proximities with each other. The results were comparable to marketed formulations. Hence the present method is simple, sensitive, precise and accurate and can be adopted for routine fingerprinting method for quality control of Nilaavaarai Chooranam.

Vegetative anatomical characteristics and trichome morphology of the monotypic Martynia annua L. (Martyniaceae) for use in identification and crude drug search

Background: Leaf epidermis and indumenta structure of M. annua were studied with the aid of microscopy for easy identification&nbsp; of the plant materials when in fragments and for crude drug search. Stomata and trichome morphology appear significant in identifying the species. Paracytic and anomocytic stomatal types are basic but polocytic is additional on the abaxial surface of theepidermis.The overwhelming reports on the folkloric uses of Martynia annua L. (Martyniaceae) and the sole reliance on exo-morphology for its identification which gives room to error form the basis for this study. Moreso, the need to utilize as many data as possible for accurate identification of the plant is another important reason for its choice for investigation. Methods: A total of 20 plant samples were examined. 100 leaves and 40 stems, petioles and midribs obtained from both herbarium samples of the plant were examined. The epidermis was recovered after treatment with concentrated trioxonitrate (v) acid (HNO3) in capped specimen bottles for about 8–24hrs to macerate the mesophyll. Samples were stained with acidified phloroglucinol and then one drop of toluidine blue. They were mounted on glass slides and examined under the microscope (XSZ- 170BN Olympus) and photomicrographs were taken with microscope eyepiece camera (Toupview 3.7). Line drawings were made with camera lucida drawing instrument. Results: Interesting folia epidermal features were encountered. These include 3 stomatal types, two main types of trichomes namely: - Type 1: Long to short multicellular-glandular trichomes with globular heads and Type 2: Unicellular non-glandular globular-headed trichomes with stalk or no stalk. Conclusion: The report of leaf teeth in M. annua which is the begonioid type is novel and cell shape of the perivascular structures is oval to polyhedral.Asuite of these characters will aid identification of M. annua when a whole fresh plant specimen is absent.

Perspectives and potential applications of endophytic microorganisms in cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants.

Ensuring food and nutritional security, it is crucial to use chemicals in agriculture to boost yields and protect the crops against biotic and abiotic perturbations. Conversely, excessive use of chemicals has led to many deleterious effects on the environment like pollution of soil, water, and air; loss of soil fertility; and development of pest resistance, and is now posing serious threats to biodiversity. Therefore, farming systems need to be upgraded towards the use of biological agents to retain agricultural and environmental sustainability. Plants exhibit a huge and varied niche for endophytic microorganisms inside the planta, resulting in a closer association between them. Endophytic microorganisms play pivotal roles in plant physiological and morphological characteristics, including growth promotion, survival, and fitness. Their mechanism of action includes both direct and indirect, such as mineral phosphate solubilization, fixating nitrogen, synthesis of auxins, production of siderophore, and various phytohormones. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) hold a crucial position worldwide for their valued essential oils and several phytopharmaceutically important bioactive compounds since ancient times; conversely, owing to the high demand for natural products, commercial cultivation of MAPs is on the upswing. Furthermore, the vulnerability to various pests and diseases enforces noteworthy production restraints that affect both crop yield and quality. Efforts have been made towards enhancing yields of plant crude drugs by improving crop varieties, cell cultures, transgenic plants, etc., but these are highly cost-demanding and time-consuming measures. Thus, it is essential to evolve efficient, eco-friendly, cost-effective simpler approaches for improvement in the yield and health of the plants. Harnessing endophytic microorganisms as biostimulants can be an effective and alternative step. This review summarizes the concept of endophytes, their multidimensional interaction inside the host plant, and the salient benefits associated with endophytic microorganisms in MAPs.