Crotolaria Juncea Research Articles

Utilization of summer legumes as bioenergy feedstocks

Sunn hemp ( Crotolaria juncea), is a fast growing, high biomass yielding tropical legume that may be a possible southeastern bioenergy crop. When comparing this legume to a commonly grown summer legume – cowpeas ( Vigna unguiculata), sunn hemp was superior in biomass yield (kg ha −1) and subsequent energy yield (GJ ha −1). In one year of the study after 12 weeks of growth, sunn hemp had 10.7 Mg ha −1 of biomass with an energy content of 19.0 Mg ha −1. This resulted in an energy yield of 204 GJ ha −1. The energy content was 6% greater than that of cowpeas. Eventhough sunn hemp had a greater amount of ash, plant mineral concentrations were lower in some cases of minerals (K, Ca, Mg, S) known to reduce thermochemical conversion process efficiency. Pyrolytic degradation of both legumes revealed that sunn hemp began to degrade at higher temperatures as well as release greater amounts of volatile matter at a faster rate.

Effect of In situ Cultivation and Incorporation of Green Manure Crops on the Yield of Coconut

A field experiment was carried out in Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu, India withsix green manure crops to study their ability to grow and establish in the coconutbasin and to evaluate their effect on nut yield. Among the crops tested, Desmodiumtortuosum was found to be the best producing 12.8 kg of green leaf matter per basinfollowed by cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea). The drymatter production was also found to be superior in Desmodium compared to others.Incorporation of Desmodium added 250 g of N per crop per basin which was thehighest. In situ cultivation and incorporation of Desmodium and sunhemp significantlyincreased the nut yield of coconut.

Productivity and nitrogen use of maize as affected by in situ and ex situ green manuring in major and minor seasons of tropical Asia

Green manuring is considered an important agronomic practice for smallholder farming systems in the tropics. Different species of legumes and non-legumes are applied either asex situorin situgreen manures. Thus a field study conducted under rainfed conditions in Sri Lanka compared the effect ofin situandex situgreen manuring using two popular green manures (Crotolaria juncea— a legume andTithonia diversifolia— a non-legume) on the growth, seed yield and N use pattern of maize (Zea mays), the most popular upland cereal in the Asian tropics, grown with high and low N rates, in the two seasons that correspond to the monsoonal rains.In situgreen manuring, especially with crotolaria, increased the growth, seed yield and N use efficiency of maize when compared to theex situaddition of similar quantities of the green manure. The impact was also greater in the minor season, when the crop was subjected to moisture stress conditions. The benefits ofin situgreen manuring with tithonia were lower than those due to crotolaria.In situgreen manuring with tithonia also led to a greater increase in growth, seed yield and N use efficiency in maize compared toex situgreen manuring with this species. The green manures, especiallyin situapplication, also increased the benefits of enhanced rates of N fertilizer to the crops in both seasons, with greater use efficiency in the major season. The study showed the benefits of green manuring (bothinandex situ) for obtaining higher yields of maize in the growing seasons of the Asian tropics, especially thein situapplication of legume species.

Influence of Cover Crop and Intercrop Systems onBemisia argentifolli(Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Infestation and Associated Squash Silverleaf Disorder in Zucchini

Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of cover cropping and intercropping on population densities of silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia argentifolli Bellow and Perring, and the incidence of squash silverleaf disorder (SSL) in zucchini, Cucurbita pepo L., in Oahu, HI. Two cover crops, buckwheat (BW), Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, and white clover (WC), Trifolium repens L., or sunn hemp (SH), Crotolaria juncea L., and an intercropped vegetable, okra, Abelmonchus esculentus L., were evaluated during the 2003, 2005, and 2006 growing seasons, respectively. Population densities of whiteflies and SSL severity varied during the three field experiments. In 2003, the severity of SSL and percentage of leaves displaying symptoms were significantly lower on zucchini plants in WC than BW plots throughout the crops' growth cycle. Additionally, the percentage of leaves per plant displaying SSL symptoms was significantly greater in bare-ground (BG) compared with the pooled BW and WC treatments on each inspection date. In 2005, zucchini intercropped with okra had lower numbers of adult whiteflies and resulted in significantly lower severity of SSL than pooled BW and WC treatments. During 2006, zucchini grown with SH had significantly lower numbers of all whitefly stages (i.e., egg, immature, and adult) and less SSL severity symptoms than BW. Despite these differences in whitefly numbers and SSL severity, marketable yields were not significantly lower in BW compared with WC or SH treatment plots during the study. The mechanisms underlying these results and the feasibility of using cover crops and intercrops to manage B. argentifolli and SSL are discussed.

Cover Crop Rotations Alter Soil Microbiology and Reduce Replant Disorders in Strawberry

In July 2001, a study was established in a field with a 30-year history of perennial strawberry production to examine effects on replant disorder of 12 different species of preplant cover crops, soil fumigation (methyl bromide plus chloropicrin), and fallow management. In May 2002, strawberries (`Jewel') were planted into pots containing soils with the incorporated cover crops, grown for 1 year, and then fruited. Strawberry yields in 2003 were highest in pots containing indiangrass (Sorghastrum avenaceum) and brown mustard (Brassica juncea) -incorporated soils, resulting in 32% and 28%, respectively, higher yield than plants in pots containing untreated, bare fallow soil. Yield was lowest in fumigated soil or soil incorporated with sunnhemp (Crotolaria juncea), having 19% and 10% less yield than the fallow treatment, respectively. In Aug. 1999, a complementary study was established in a field with a 7-year history of continuous perennial strawberry production to examine the effects of single species and multiple species rotations on replant disorder, bacterial populations, and fungal pathogens over 2 fruiting years. Cover crop treatments included various monocultures and sequences of perennial alfalfa (Medicago sativa), brown mustard, kale (B. oleracea `Winterbor'), sweet corn (Zea mays `Saccharata'), rye (Secale cereale), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), marigold (Tagetes patula `Nema-gone'), oats (Avena sativa `Newdak'), and sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor × S. sudanese). These rotations were compared with the effects of fumigation using methyl bromide with chloropicrin (99:1), continuous strawberry, and bare fallow. Symptoms of replant disorder developed in the continuous strawberry plots within a few months of planting. Plants in the fumigation treatment produced greater fruit yield than all other treatments in 2003, 139% more than plants from the continuous strawberry treatment. Strawberry plants grown in the kale/sweet corn/rye treatment had consistently high yield, and both the hairy vetch/marigold/rye and the oats/sudangrass/rye treatments led to marked improvement over the continuous strawberry treatment. Plants from the brown mustard treatment also were more vigorous and productive than plants from the continuous strawberry treatment during 2002 despite having relatively low foliar biomass and a relatively high level of fungal infection on strawberry plant roots. In the field, symptoms of replant disorder were best overcome by fumigation with methyl bromide or multiple species rotations, particularly that of kale followed by sweet corn and rye. Although Rhizoctonia levels were associated with poor root health, general fungal and bacterial root infection rates were not consistently associated with the presence of visible symptoms of replant disorder nor with strawberry plant growth and productivity.

Contribution of Tithonia diversifolia to yield and nutrient uptake of maize in Malawian small-scale agriculture

Locally available non-traditional green manure plants could potentially contribute to reversing the trend of declining soil fertility and raise maize yield in small-scale farms. In this study, Tithonia diversifolia was tested as a low cost green manure in Malawi. In a greenhouse incubation experiment, changes in soil nitrate (NO(3-), ammonium (NH4 +) and extractable phosphorus (Mehlich-3 P) were compared between treatments of T. diversifolia, Crotolaria juncea (sunhemp), Tephrosia vogelii, Mucuna utilis (velvet beans) and maize stover that were applied to the soil at an equivalent rate of 3 Mg dry matter ha−1. This was followed by a field study where three rates of T. diversifolia dry matter (1.5, 3.0, 4.5 Mg ha−1) were applied with or without triple superphosphate (TSP) supplement to maize grown at three locations in central and northern Malawi. The changes in laboratory incubated soil N03- and NH4 + levels were similar (P 0.05) among T. diversifolia, Tephrosia and Mucuna while the change in soil treated with maize stover was less and similar to that observed in bare soil. The greatest change in soil NO3- and NH4 + levels were induced by Crotolaria. In the field, the average maize yields were 4.6 Mg ha−1 at Chitedze, 3.1 Mg ha−1 at Bembeke and 1.1 Mg ha−1 at Champhira; The lowest T. diversifolia rate (1.5 Mg ha−1), increased maize yield over that obtained in the control plot by 41% at Bembeke, 122% at Chitedze and 162% at Champhira. Maize yields were increased with increasing T. diversifolia rates and the yields obtained with 3.0 and 4.5 Mg T. diversifolia ha−1 were similar to those obtained with 90 Mg N ha−1 as inorganic fertilizer. There was no obvious benefit from applying TSP in combination with T. diversifolia. Given the nutrient release and maize yield values with T. diversifolia, it should prove to be a good green manure that can be afforded by small-scale farmers in these regions of Malawi.

Cultivation of kenaf and sunn hemp in the mid-Atlantic United States

Sunn hemp ( Crotolaria juncea L.), a legume plant, has potential in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. as a renewable source of fiber and pulp, due to its biological nitrogen fixation capability that can help reduce/eliminate N pollution of Chesapeake Bay. Most research in this region has focused on kenaf ( Hibiscus cannabinus L.) and little is known about sunn hemp. We evaluated effects of three planting dates (late-May, mid-June, and late-June) and three row spacings (0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 m) on dry matter yields (DMY) of kenaf and sunn hemp during 1997, and 1998 by using three crop treatments (CT1: kenaf grown with 100 kg N ha −1; CT2: sunn hemp grown without inoculation and with 100 kg N ha −1; and CT3: sunn hemp inoculated with Bradyrhizobium but without N fertilization). DMY following CT1 and CT3 (7.8 and 6.4 Mg ha −1, respectively) during 1997 were similar and greater than that following CT2 (5.7 Mg ha −1). However, DMY following CT1, CT2, and CT3 were similar in 1998 and ranged from 12.6 to 13.4 Mg ha −1. Kenaf planting date did not affect DMY during 1997 but during 1998 the highest DMY was obtained from kenaf planted in late-May. The optimal planting date for sunn hemp during 1997 was mid-June, whereas in 1998 it was late-May. Row spacing effects on kenaf DMY were not significant. Row spacings of 0.3 m were optimal for DMY of N-fertilized sunn hemp during 1997 and 1998, whereas row spacing did not affect DMY of non-fertilized, but affected inoculated sunn hemp. We conclude that both kenaf and sunn hemp could produce similar dry matter yields in the mid-Atlantic region of U.S.

Yield potential and soil quality under alternative crop production practices for fresh market pepper

This study was conducted in Florida in 1999 and 2000 to examine the impact of alternative crop production practices on soil quality and yields of fresh market pepper (Capsicum annuum). Replicated field plots were established on an organic vegetable farm that had been under certification for 5 years and on a conventional pepper farm that had been fumigated with methyl bromide for 25 consecutive years. Production practices evaluated included raised beds covered by white plastic mulch, soil solarization, no-till in a stubble crop of sunn hemp (Crotolaria juncea) or iron-clay pea (Vigna unguiculata) and the addition of 67 t ha−1 of urban plant debris (UPD). Soil fumigation with methyl bromide–chloropicrin was also evaluated at the conventional farm site. Soil organic carbon significantly increased following the addition of UPD in both years at the organic site but only in the second year at the conventional site. Cation exchange capacity increased significantly after addition of UPD in both years at both sites and a significant interaction with production practices was observed in the second year at the organic site. Soil phosphorus levels were high at both sites but were not impacted by production practices or UPD. In 1999, the addition of UPD significantly decreased soil nitrate levels at the organic site and the conventional site, except under the no-till treatments. In 2000, soil nitrate levels were not affected by UPD or production practice. Stand counts, determined by the number of surviving pepper plants 21–28 days after transplanting, were severely impacted in no-till treatments due to intense competition from weeds. Marketable yields equal to, or above, the 1999/2000 statewide average for conventional production systems were obtained with soil fumigation and soil solarization at the conventional site in 1999. In 2000, an epidemic of Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora capsici) eliminated production at the conventional site. Marketable yield at the organic site approached the statewide average for conventional systems under the solarization treatment. Yields under plastic mulch were increased at both sites with the addition of UPD. The results demonstrated that organic pepper yields from soil-solarized plots were similar to yields obtained by conventional farmers using high inputs of rapidly mobile nitrogen sources. However, no-till systems for fall production do not appear to be a viable alternative under Florida conditions due to the rapid proliferation of weeds under the cover crop stubble. The addition of urban plant debris was associated with an increase in soil organic carbon and cation exchange capacity in sandy soils typical of those found in Florida.

Impact of the Cropping Systems of a Minor Dry Season on the Growth, Yields and Nitrogen Uptake of Maize (Zea mays L) Grown in the Humid Tropics during the Major Rainy Season

AbstractA field study evaluated the residual effect of a cropping system in two minor (dry) seasons on the productivity pattern and nitrogen utilization of a maize crop grown in the subsequent major (wet) seasons. The cropping systems established in the minor seasons, where evaporation exceeds rainfall, were either monocultures of maize (Zea mays L), or maize intercropped with either common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) or sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea L). In addition, monocultures of two green manures, namely sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea) or Tithonia (Tithonia diversifolia), were established. The residues of maize and beans and the green manures were incorporated at the end of the minor season; at the onset of rains in the major season, maize crops were established on the same plots. Germination of maize was not affected by the previous cropping system. In contrast, crop growth and yields of maize and nitrogen utilization were affected by the previous cropping system. Optimum growth and highest yields were procured in maize that was grown after a green manure crop. Similarly, although the yields were high, the planting of a green manure crop reduced nitrogen utilization by maize in the major season, thereby indicating its potential contribution to sustainability, due to its lower mining of soil nitrogen. On the basis of the results of this two‐year study, the impact of cropping systems in minor seasons on the productivity of maize, a very important highland cereal in the tropics, grown under rain‐fed conditions in a major season, is presented.

Nitrogen Mineralization of Cover Crop Residues in Calcareous Gravelly Soil

Tropical legumes like sunn hemp (Crotolaria juncea L.) and aeschynomene (Aeschynomene evenia L.) have potential as alternative cover crops in tropical regions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the N mineralization rates of three cover crops [aeschynomene (AE), sorghum sudangrass (Sorghum sudanense L.), and sunn hemp (SH)] residues used to amend a calcareous gravelly soil in order to predict nitrogen (N) availability for uptake by subsequent crops. The soil amended with cover crop residues was incubated in columns under ambient and controlled temperatures. Mineralization rates were determined with a leaching/incubation method. The mineral N ratios between ambient and controlled temperature ranged from 1.39 to 2.8 with an average of 2.1. The measured cumulative mineral-N indicated that legumes were far more effective than non-leguminous cover crops in increasing N availability in the soil. The maximum values of mineral N recovered were 19, 7, and 8% of added N for AE, SH, and sorghum sudan (SS), respectively, when incubated at ambient temperature. Based on the Mean Square Error (MSE) for the equations describing mineralization kinetics, the power function was better than other models for all treatments, except SS at both the temperatures. The comparison of goodness of fit between the observed and predicted values indicated that the power function and parabolic equation produced generally good predictions for AE, SH, and control treatments at ambient temperature. However, at controlled temperature, the power function and the zero-order equations gave the best predictions for all treatments.

Insecticidal and Repellent Properties of Subtropical Plant Extracts Against Pulse Beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis

Extracts of eight plants local to Oman, namely Qarat (Acacia nilotica), Mustafal (Annona squamosa), Shereesh (Azadirachta indica), Luban (Boswellia sacra), Kheshkhash (Crotolaria juncea), Zebrot (Jatropha dhofarica) Yas, (Myrtus communis) and Suwwad (Suaeda aegyptiaca) were prepared by steeping shaded dried leaf/ seed powder of each plant in water and solvent (methanol or ethanol). The extracts were tested for their insecticidal and repellent properties against the pulse beetles, Callosobruchus chinensis. The extracts from the seeds of A. squamosa recorded l00% mortality of beetles within twenty and four hours of their exposure to methanol and ethanol extracts, respectively. The other extracts that caused high mortality were from A. nilotica, C. juncea, M. communis and S. aegzptiaca in methanol and B. sacra, J. dhofarica, S. aegptiaca and commercial neem in ethanol. Extracts of M. communis in methanol were highly repellent to the beetles compared to other extracts. Legume seeds treated with extracts of A. squamosa were not repellent, rather the beetles were attracted to them.

Production potential, soil health, water productivity and economics of rice (Oryza sativa)based cropping systems under different nutrient sources

A field experiment was conducted during 200405 to 200809 at Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh to study the effect of chemical fertilizers, organic manures (ONM) and integrated (50:50) nutrient management (INM) practices on the production potential, soil fertility, water productivity and economics of 4 rice ( Oryza sativa L.)- based cropping sys- tems involving durum wheat ( Triticum durum Desb.)-sunhemp ( Crotolaria juncea L.), potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.)-okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus L.), berseem ( Trifolium alexandrium L.) and vegetable pea ( Pisum sativum L.) and sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L. Moench). The productivity of crops in these cropping systems was higher when chemical fertilizer was used compared to ONM or INM in all the years of experimentation. In the initial years, ONM recorded a significant reduction in yield. Of the different rice based cropping systems, rice-potato-okra gave the highest rice equivalent (REs), while rice-wheat-GM gave the least REs. At the end of 5 cropping cycles, applica- tion of organic manures resulted in higher soil organic carbon, available N, P and K than the chemical fertilizers. Maximum beneficial micro-organisms were recorded under organic nutrient management (ONM) after completion of 5 crop cycles and the bulk density of soil was also lowered significantly in ONM. The B:C ratio was higher for chemical fertilizers in case of rice- durum wheat-green manuring (3.6) and rice-potato-okra (3.1) due to lesser cost of cultivation.

Relay‐Intercropping of Sunnhemp and Cowpea into a Smallholder Maize System in Zimbabwe

The rising real prices of purchased inputs is driving smallholder maize (Zea mays L.) production towards lower levels of inorganic fertilizer. Legume intercrops are a source of plant N that can be produced locally and offer a practical complement to inorganic fertilizers. Field experiments conducted on a loamy sand (Typic Kandiustalf) soil evaluated the impact of relay‐intercropping two legume crops, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and sunnhemp (Crotolaria juncea L.) into smallholder maize in Zimbabwe. The objectives were to quantify: (i) biomass and N yield of intercropped legumes, (ii) the impact of the legumes on companion maize yield and N uptake, and (iii) the response of a subsequent maize crop to legumes. Dry matter yield ranged from 0.6 to 4.6 Mg ha−1 for cowpea and 0.9 to 2.9 Mg ha−1 for sunnhemp, over two years. At the most, cowpea and sunnhemp produced 154 and 82 kg N ha−1, respectively. Companion maize grain yields were not reduced when the legumes were relay‐intercropped into maize fertilized at 0 to 60 kg N ha−1. However, maize yields were reduced 18 to 31% when maize + legume intercrops were fertilized at 120 kg N ha−1. In the subsequent year, maize grain yields were increased by 8 to 27% following maize + legume when no fertilizer N was applied, compared with maize following maize. Legumes reduced fertilizer needs of a subsequent maize crop by 36 kg N ha−1. Intercropped annual legumes and small amounts of inorganic fertilizer offers a strategy to meet the N needs on smallholder farms.

EFFICIENCY OF SOME ORGANIC MANURES ON CANE AND SUGAR YIELD

Field experiments were conducted to study the effect of organic manures viz.. green manures. green leat manures, pressmud and farm yard manure on cane and sugar yield of variety COC 85061 during early season of 1993 and 1994 in Sugarcane Research Station, Melalathur. Vellore district of Tamil Nadu with the nutrient status of low, medium and medium availability of N.P and K respectively. Results revealed that in situ incorporation of Crotolaria juncea with 175:63:113 kg of NPK har application registered maximum cane and sugar yield of 125 and 15.8 t ha respectively. It was 14 per cent higher yield than the treatment with inorganic fertiliser of 225:63:113 NPK ha application.

Fodder legumes affecting sequential crop production and fertilizer N use efficiency

SUMMARYExperiments made with winter fodder crops, lucerne (Medicago sativa), berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) and oats (Avena sativa) and summer fodder crops, cow pea (Vigna unguiculata), guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea) and pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum) showed that a sequential crop of Sudan grass yielded more after the legumes than after the cereal fodders, oats or pearl millet. The legume advantage was noted in the crop not given fertilizers but also when Sudan grass was given N fertilizer. The yield increase in Sudan grass grown after legumes was equivalent to 32–60 kg fertilizer N/ha applied to Sudan grass following pearl millet.After harvesting the legumes more available N and NO3-N was present in the soil and the apparent recovery of fertilizer N by a subsequent crop was increased by the legume.

Studies on medicinal plants of sri lanka. part 14: toxicity of some traditional medicinal herbs

Seventy five medicinal plants of the traditional Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia of Sri Lanka have been screened chemically for alkaloids and pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Of these, Crotolaria juncea L. was found to contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids with biological effects consistent with pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicity. Feeding trials in rats with three plants lacking pyrrolizidine alkaloids, namely Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Ait. F. and Terminalia chebula Retz. produced hepatic lesions which included central vein abnormalities while Terminalia chebula and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal produced marked renal lesions.

Surface polysaccharides of phytopathogenic strains of Ceratocystis paradoxa and Ceratocystis fimbriata isolated from different hosts

Surface polysaccharides from three strains of Ceratocystis paradoxa and two strains of Ceratocystis fimbriata were isolated from cells grown either at 25 or 37°C and their structures were analyzed by chemical methods and by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. All strains were phytopathogenic and were isolated from tropical fruits, sugar cane, and the shrub Crotolaria juncea . Mannans, glucomannans, and galactomannans were identified and their partial structures determined. Isolates of Ceratocystis within the same species synthesized different polysaccharides depending on their original hosts. Temperature variation influenced the synthesis of polysaccharides in one strain of C. paradoxa and also influenced the incorporation of N -acetylglucosamine units into several mannans. No correlation was observed between synthesis of a particular polysaccharide and host specialization or host specificity in the Ceratocystis isolates.

The Biology and the Host Range of Orosius albicinctus Dist. (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), the Vector of Sesame Phyllody Disease

Studies on the biology and the host range of Orosius albicinctus Dist., the vector of Sesamum phyllody disease were made under field and insectary conditions. Tho mean duration of egg stage varied from 6 to 11 days, the total nymphal period 14 to 17 days and longevity of adults from 20 10 67 days in different seasons. The sesame MLO did not have any adverse effect on the longevity and fecundity of the vector. The vector bred successfully on 17 species of plants. among them seven. species of plants viz., Crotolaria juncea L. Sesamum laciniatum Kloin, Solanum melon- gena L.. Sphaeranthus indicus L.. Gyandropsis pentaphylla DC. Cleome viscosa L., and Trichodesma indicum RB.. were utilised successfully for breeding under field conditions. It oviposited on Arachis hypogaea L. Cajanus cajan L.. Gossypium hirsutum L., and Abutilon indicum G. and the nymphs perished without attaining maturity. It neither oviposited nor survived for long periods on 43 species of plants belonging to 12 families.

Fodder Grasses of Madras

The present position of fodder for cattle in Madras is far from satisfactory. In most places the cattle are dependent on the straw of cereal crops. The total estimated fodder production is only about 24-53 million tons for the Presidency whereas the total requirement of fodder works out to nearly 58-91 million tons. In most parts of the Presidency, ryots maintain too large a number of cattle, either, for the production of farmyard manure or merely because they do not wish to slaughter them. These animals, unlike the work bullocks and milch cattle are not stall-fed but may be driven out to graze in waste lands. In the case of cattle-breeding or cattle-rearing centres, pastures are maintained or fodder crops are raised to feed the animals. In the Circars, Crotolaria juncea (sunnhemp), in Nellore Phaseolus trilobus (pillipesara) and in Ramnad and Tinnevelly Sorghum dochna var. Irungu (Irungu cholam) are cultivated as fodder crops. In other areas, cattle are allowed to graze on waste lands, current follows and in forests. No systematic grazing principles are adopted and as such the fodder out-put is very poor.