Cross-country Competition Research Articles

Losing It (review)

Reviewed by: Losing It Elizabeth Bush Fry, Erin. Losing It. Amazon Children’s, 2012. [272p]. Trade ed. ISBN 978-0-7614-6220-0 $16.99 E-book ed. ISBN 978-0-7614-6222-4 $9.99 Reviewed from galleys R Gr. 5–8. Since Bennett’s mother passed away years ago, Bennett Robinson and his father have pretty much gone the couch potato route, spending many afternoons eating junk food and watching baseball. The day of reckoning arrives when 400-pound Dad collapses in the living room, is hustled to the hospital in critical condition, and then faces a long and arduous recovery from what turns out to be a stroke. Bennett is temporarily swept up into the household of his only nearby relative, Aunt Laura, who, along with her fit and healthy family, alternately coaxes and bullies Bennett into a better diet and a bit of activity. Bennett reluctantly admits to himself that he’s looking and feeling a little better, and he even joins the cross-country team at school, but his lack of control over his domestic situation and his own choices are a continual thorn in his fleshy side. Fry piles a load of anxieties onto her struggling protagonist, but each trial is credible and intrinsic to his situation—the school bully who won’t leave the fat kid in peace; the medical insurance limits that threaten to bankrupt the Robinsons; the pressure of a blossoming relationship with a girl who’s showing interest in him; the challenges of cross-country competition for a kid who’s just getting his breath and stride; and of course, the constant worry about his father’s recovery. While the ending puts father and son on a happier path, it’s clear that their lives will require some radical reshaping. Fortunately, it’s equally clear they’re up to the task. Elizabeth Bush Reviewer Copyright © 2012 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

A survey on the feeding of eventing horses during competition

This study aims at the comparison of the actual feeding of horses with the recommendations from the literature, and it studies the effects of feeding and exercise on several blood metabolic parameters before and after exercise. Blood samples were collected from 25 horses during one-star eventing competitions and evaluated for blood glucose, insulin, lactate, free fatty acids and triglyceride levels. Questionnaires on the feeding practices of the horses were evaluated. The questionnaires revealed that during training, and on tournament days, horses received on average 4.3 kg of concentrate per day (min. 1.54 kg, max. 8 kg). The statistical analysis showed no significant effect of the amount of concentrate fed before exercise on the measured blood values. Oil was supplied as a supplementary energy source to 30% of the horses, but most of them only received very small quantities (0.02-0.4 l/day). Five horses (20%) had no access to salt supplements at all, and eleven horses (45%) had no access to salt on tournament days. Fifteen horses (60%) were supplied with mineral feed. Twenty-one horses (84%) had daily access to pasture during the training period. During competition, 55% of the horses received roughage ad libitum, compared with 37% during training. The majority of the horses received less roughage on days before the cross-country competition. It could not be ascertained whether feeding a large amounts of roughage had a beneficial effect on performance, because only a few horses in this study were fed with very restrictive roughage. Feeding of most of the horses was in agreement with the recommendations from the literature, except the need for sodium and chloride. The sodium and chloride need for sport horses may be overestimated in literature and needs to be re-evaluated.

The end of the growth economy or a change in the development paradigm?

The causes, development, and effects of the global economic crisis are a subject of heated debates at all levels. They were also discussed at a meeting of the RAS Presidium. In the authors’ opinion, cross-country competition will be strained, large-scale trade wars will become a reality, and the global market situation will worsen during the stagnation period after the acute phase of the crisis.

Test-retest Reliability Of Vertical Jump Performance In Competitive Cross Country Skiers

The reliability of vertical jump performance, an indicator of lower body power (LBP) in cross country skiers, has never been reported in this population. PURPOSE: This study investigated the test-retest reliability for LBP variables from four vertical jump tests in competitive cross country skiers. METHODS: 18 competitive cross country skiers, 9 female (Mean ± SD: 19 ±1 yrs, 57.1± 3.4 ml/kg/min for VO2MAX) and 9 male (18 ± 1 yrs, 69.7± 4.9 ml/kg/min), participated in two separate vertical jump testing bouts occurring 7-8 days apart. Jump tests included: 1 Jump-Squat (1J-S), 1 Jump-Counter Movement (1J-CM), 4 Consecutive Jump (4J), and the 60 Consecutive Jump (60J). Using an electronic timing pad, measures of jump height (JH, cm) for all tests, explosive leg power factor (ELPF = average air time/average ground contact time; unitless) for 4J and 60J tests, and a 60J ELPF ratio (60JR = ELPF from 1st 15jumps/ ELPF from last 15 jumps) for the 60J were derived. Reliability for each variable was assessed with a combination of the standard error of measurement (SEM) and the intraclass correlation (RXX; stability reliability), the latter of which was computed across the two days of testing, using a 2-Factor RM ANOVA. RESULTS: Mean values for JH and ELPF variables were statistically similar between trials (P>0.05) except ELPF for the 4J test which increased for trial 2 (Mean±SE:1.7±.09 vs 1.9±.08; P=0.02). RXX across both trials (κ=2) for all measures of JH were high (0.91-0.97) with relatively low SEMs (±1.54-2.46 cms). RXX for ELPF variables were moderate (0.66-0.87) with relatively high SEMs (±0.14- 0.28), while both RXX (0.51) and SEM (±0.06) for 60JR were low. When extrapolated to a single day of measurement, RXX (κ=1) was moderate to high for JH (0.83-0.94), low to moderate for ELPF (0.49-0.79), and very low for 60JR (0.34). CONSLUSIONS: JH variables demonstrated consistently high reliability while the ELPF variables were consistently lower in reliability regardless of the vertical jump test. When used as part of a fitness test battery for competitive Nordic skiers, JH can be reliably measured on a single occasion from any of the jump tests, but the ELPF variables would need two or more measures on separate occasions for reliable measures.

Heart Rate Responses and Fluid Balance of Competitive Cross-Country Hang Gliding Pilots

To evaluate the physiological challenges of competitive cross-country hang gliding. Seventeen experienced male pilots (age=41+/-9 y; mean+/-SD) were fitted with a monitor that recorded heart rate and altitude at 0.5 Hz throughout a competitive flight. Fluid losses were evaluated by comparing pilot pre- and postflight mass. The pilots' displacement was 88.4+/-43.7 km in 145.5+/-49.4 min. Mean flight altitude was 1902+/-427 m (range=1363-2601 m) with a maximum altitude of 2925+/-682 m (1870-3831 m). The mean in-flight heart rate of the pilots was 112+/-11 bpm (64+/-6% predicted HRmax). For all except one subject, heart rate was highest while launching (165+/-12 bpm, 93+/-7% predicted HRmax), followed by landing (154+/-13 bpm, 87+/-7% predicted HRmax). No statistically significant relationship was observed between heart rate during the launch and reported measures of state anxiety. Heart rate was inversely related (P<.01) to altitude for all pilots except one. Fluid loss during the flight was 1.32+/-0.70 L, which approximated 0.55 L/h, while mean in-flight fluid consumption was 0.39+/-0.44 L. Six pilots consumed no fluid during the flight. Even among experienced pilots, high heart rates are more a function of state anxiety than physical work demand. Fluid losses during flight are surprisingly moderate but pilots may still benefit from attending to fluid balance.

Bike Transalp 2008: Liquid Intake and Its Effect on the Body's Fluid Homeostasis in the Course of a Multistage, Cross-Country, MTB Marathon Race in the Central Alps

To investigate the drinking behavior of the participants in a multi-day mountain bike (MTB) cross-country competition, to monitor its effect on the body's fluid compartments and body mass, and to evaluate the prevalence of exercise-associated dysnatremia. Descriptive field study. The Jeantex Bike Transalp Competition 2008 (8 stages; 665.40 km; 21 691 m height). Twenty-five male, amateur MTB cyclists. Reported fluid intake during the race, air temperature. Changes in body mass and body composition from pre to post race and throughout the competition week, serum sodium concentration at finish line of stages 5 and 6. Mean (+ or - SD) hourly fluid intake during the race correlated with air temperature (r = 0.868, P < .05) and ranged between 494 + or - 191 mL/h and 754 + or - 254 mL/h. In absence of exercise-induced hyponatremia (EAH) cases, we report 5 and 4 cases of asymptomatic post-race hypernatremia, on days 5 and 6, respectively. When related to race time and body mass, the liquid intake during the race (in mL x kg(-1) x h(-1)) correlated with post-race serum sodium concentration (stage 5: r = -0.463, P < .05, n = 24; stage 6: r = -0.589, P < .01, n = 23); no correlation was found between the change in body mass from pre to post race and serum sodium concentration at finish line. Ad libitum fluid consumption during competition was spontaneously adjusted to the unsettled weather conditions in the course of the 2008 "Bike Transalp." The inverse linear relationship between hourly fluid intake and post-race serum sodium concentrations suggests underdrinking to be one contributing factor to the high reported incidence of hypernatremia in the absence of EAH. Experimental studies are requested to confirm this hypothesis and to further examine the pathogenesis of exercise-associated dysnatremia. In this setting, body mass monitoring was not an accurate instrument to control body fluid homeostasis.

The Physiology of Seven Consecutive Days of Competitive Cross Country Mountain Biking

Many lab based studies investigating methodologies to enhance recovery from competition or training use test-strategy/placebo-re-test designs. However, in the field competitive events (e.g. Track Cycling) and training programmes often feature many repetitions of the desired activity: yet little is known about the physiological effects of multiple days of competition. PURPOSE: To determine the effect of seven consecutive days of cross-country mountain bike racing on selected physiological variables. METHODS: Forty four participants in the TransScotland 7 day mountain bike stage race were recruited. Prior to competition (day 0) VO2peak was predicted (submaximal cycle ergometery) and basic anthropological measurements were made. Fasted measurements of blood glucose concentration, urine osmolality, rating of muscle soreness and body mass were made before each stage and again in the post-prandial state after each stage. RESULTS: Fasted blood glucose concentration was lower than pre-competition (day 1: 4.63 ± 0.91 mmol·L−1) on days 2 to 6 (all p < 0.01) but returned to baseline levels on the 7th day of competition (day 7: 4.76 ± 0.78 mmol·L−1) (p = 0.32). Post exercise rating of muscle soreness increased from day 1 (3.81 ± 1.5) to day 7 (4.71 ± 1.64) of competition (p < 0.01). Pre- and post-exercise urine osmolality increased from day 1 (pre: 550.7 ± 180.6 post: 435.5 ± 245.8 mOsmol·kg−1) to day 7 (pre: 631.2 ± 184.1 post: 600.0 ± 247 mOsmol·kg−1) of competition (pre: p = 0.03 post: p < 0.01). There was a significant reduction in body mass from pre-competition on day 1 (81.2 ± 8.41 kg) to pre- (78.3 ± 8.14 kg) (p < 0.01) and post-competition on day 7 (78.8 ± 7.74 kg) (p < 0.01). The reduction in body mass was accompanied by a reduction in the sum of four site skin-fold thickness from pre-competition on day 0 (36.6 ± 10.7 mm) to postcompetition on day 7 (35.3 ± 9.9 mm) (p = 0.01). Subjects consumed an average of 570 ± 92 ml·hr−1 of CHO-electrolyte drink during competition. CONCLUSIONS: Seven consecutive days of cross-country mountain bike racing has a substantial, additive, deleterious impact on the measured physiological variables. This should be taken into account when designing investigations aimed at improving recovery in real-world situations. Supported in part by the Andrews Fund, University of Glasgow and by High5 Ltd, Leicester, UK.

Cross-Country Competition in Corporate Taxes

With economic integration rapidly growing at all level, understanding the incentives that this provides in the design of fiscal policies at the national level is fundamental. The most obvious implication of international competition on the taxation of mobile factors is a race to the bottom in the determination of tax rates. However, empirical evidence on the relationship between the strength of competitive pressures and corporate tax rates is mixed. The present paper aims to provide an in depth analysis of the implications of the diverse assumptions that have been made in the theoretical literature. Moreover, the main approaches to the empirical analysis of the relationship between competition and the level of taxation are presented. The paper shows that a large number of factors play a role and accounting for the interactions among all of them in a single model is extremely complicated. This may be seen as a main determinant of the variety in the results obtained so far, both in theoretical and empirical research.

Borrowing Beyond Borders: The Geography and Pricing of Syndicated Bank Loans

We examine the global geography and pricing of the syndicated loan market using a sample of more than 13,000 loan packages issued to 4,713 firms headquartered across 10 countries during the 1998 to 2004 sample period. Our results provide insights into the relative importance of information costs, cross-country differences in legal and regulatory costs, and cross-country competition in bank lending. Consistent with Carey and Nini's (2006) pricing puzzle, we find that, on average, loans to European firms are significantly cheaper than loans to North American firms by approximately 40 basis points. However, we find that the price differences between these markets holds primarily for those firms that do not have complete access to European capital markets. That is, firms headquartered in North America with significant assets or sales in Europe get the European discount by using a European lead lender. At the same time, we find that large firms often pay lower rates when borrowing from a foreign lender. Interestingly, this result holds for both North American firms borrowing in Europe as well as for European firms borrowing in North America. Therefore, it appears that global competition has helped reduce borrowing costs for those firms that have greater access to global lending markets. Our finding that discounting on foreign loans to large firms occurs in a similar fashion in both Europe and North America also suggests that European lenders do not have a persistent competitive or regulatory advantage.

Differences in State Cross Country Performance by Gender and Grade

0263 PURPOSE: Athletic performance has often been compared between genders or between different age groups, but little has been done regarding performance in cross country running. There is a common perception that females achieve peak cross country performance at an earlier age than males. Our study compares males and females within the same grade, and across grades, for performance in cross-country competition. METHODS: Performance, gender, and grade information for five years of average pace, and finishing position. The association between gender and grade was analyzed using a two-way ANOVA. In addition, repeated measures ANOVAs were used to compare performances for those that competed in the championship more than once, again by gender and analysis by grade. Differences were considered significant if at the .05 level of probability. RESULTS: 2053 performances were recorded during a five year period. Of these, 1778 had grade information for analysis by grade. Significantly more females competed during the 9th and 10th grade, while the proportion of males was greater during the 11th and 12th grade. Comparison of performances for those participating more than once showed that the males had greater improvements over time for two or three competitions, though there was not a difference between the genders over time for those participating four years in a row. The average difference between grades for competitive time was 15 seconds for the females and 41 seconds for the males. CONCLUSIONS: These data partially support observations that females excel in cross country running earlier in their high school experience. Males tend to develop more slowly, but by 12th grade show greater overall improvement.

Muscle Strength and Power Adaptations of Summer-Training in Well- Trained Male Adolescent Distance Runners

1415 Endurance exercise performance is largely dictated by parameters associated with aerobic energy production. However, recent studies have also indicated that muscle strength and power may also be important determinants of endurance performance. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of pre-season cross-country training on muscular strength and power in a group of high-school runners. METHODS: Eleven males (17.0 ± 0.9 yrs) underwent strength and power testing. Data was collected 2–3 weeks after the subjects' competitive track season at the onset of summer training (Pre), and 1–2 weeks prior to the first competitive crosscountry meet (Post). Isokinetic knee extension strength was measured using a Cybex dynamometer at four movement speeds (60, 120, 180, and 240°/sec). Vertical jump height was measured using a linear transducer and vertical jump power was calculated by the equation (Power = 2.21 × weight (kg) × (√distance (m)). Independent samples t-tests were conducted on height, weight, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) absolute (L/min) and relative (ml/kg/min), vertical jump height, and vertical jump power. Twoway ANOVA analysis was used to evaluate torques at each isokinetic knee extension movement speed. RESULTS: VO2max was greater after summer training at both an absolute level (4.6 ± 0.4 to 4.4 ± 0.3 L/min) and a relative level (72.9 ± 4.5 to 70.9 ± 3.5 ml/kg/min) (p < 0.05), height was greater (179.8 ± 4.3 to 179.2 ± 4.3 cm) (p < 0.05), however weight was not different from Pre (62.9 ± 5.7 kg) to Post (63.2 ± 5.3 kg) (p > 0.05). Vertical jump height (55.2 ± 7.9 to 54.6 ± 7.2 cm) and vertical jump power (1034.6 ± 152.3 to 1033.2 ± 138.5 kg-m/sec) did not change over time. Isokinetic knee extension torque measurements Pre were 165.7 ± 22.6, 141.3 ± 20.3, 114.0 ± 23.2, 89.2 ± 23.6 Nm and Post were 144.3 ± 27.6, 124.7 ± 31.5, 100.8 ± 25.5, 77.0 ± 23.0 Nm at 60°/sec, 120°/sec, 180°/sec, and 240°/sec, respectively. Pre measurements were greater than Post measurements as torque decreased over time (p < 0.05), but there was no interaction. CONCLUSION: Pre-season distance run training improves VO2max in high-school cross-country runners, but fails to increase muscle power. Moreover, this type of training appears to be associated with a decrease in isokinetic muscle strength. Contrasts to the adaptations within season training merits further study. Supported by the Office of Academic Research and Sponsored Programs at Ball State University and the Gatorade Sports Science Institute.

Globalisation and competition policies

Globalisation and Competition Policies. — This paper discusses the nature of globalisation and its relationship to cross-country competition in the markets for tradeable goods and services. It emphasises the dual modes of cross-border supply, namely, international trade and international production. These have given rise to new international dimensions of competition policy. The paper surveys these dimensions and considers the desirability of harmonising competition policies of different nations and other options such as the development of multilateral competition policies under the WTO.

Cardiovascular effects of face immersion and factors affecting diving reflex in man.

Cardiovascular effects of face immersion and factors affecting diving reflex in man.