Crop Raiding Research Articles

A quantification of damage and assessment of economic loss due to crop raiding by Asian Elephant Elephas maximus (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Elephantidae): a case study of Manas National Park, Assam, India

A quantification of damage and assessment of economic loss due to crop raiding by Asian Elephant Elephas maximus (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Elephantidae): a case study of Manas National Park, Assam, India

Managing Human-Sun Bear Conflict in Sumatran Agroforest Systems

Human-wildlife conflict negatively affects farmers’ livelihoods and wildlife species that may already be threatened. In Sumatra, the sun bear Helarctos malayanus is a little-known and potentially significant conflict species. To understand the characteristics of human-sun bear conflict and local perceptions and tolerance towards the species, semi-structured interviews were conducted among 120 farmers from four study areas in west-central Sumatra. Spatio-temporal conflict patterns were then investigated in 30 farms from one selected study area. Overall, 45.8 % of respondents reported having experienced human-sun bear conflicts since occupying their farm and crop raiding characterised the majority of these conflicts. Farmers who experienced property damage and livestock depredation by sun bears were less tolerant towards the species and favoured conflict management strategies that removed sun bears from their area. Conflict events were positively correlated with rainfall and peaked when important cash crops reached maturity. With the current rate of agricultural expansion in west-central Sumatra human-sun bear conflicts are likely to increase. This study suggests that mitigation strategies should be implemented as crops mature for harvest, where such measures would no doubt lessen raids by other conflict species.

Wildlife Crop Raids: Victims Deserve Support

Wildlife Crop Raids: Victims Deserve Support

Natural resource use conflict in Bale Mountains National Park, Southeast Ethiopia

Conflict over natural resources including wildlife, forest, land and water is common particularly in developing countries. It is extremely difficult to sustainably manage a resource if it is under conflict. This study aimed to assess the causes of resource use conflict in Bale Mountains National Park and attitudes of local community towards the Park. Finally, to find measures to reduce resource use conflict. This study was conducted in Dinsho Woreda of Bale Zone, southeast Ethiopia from December 11, 2012 to May 10, 2013. Both primary and secondary sources of data gathering tools such as key informant and stakeholder’s interview, focus group discussion (FGD) and household survey techniques were used. The result revealed that conflict of interest between Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) and the surrounding community could be traced back to the 1970s, the time of the park establishment. The establishment of the park gradually restricted free movement of herds of those living particularly by rearing animals. Gradual expansion of agriculture and the need for more land became additional cause of conflict. Based on the household survey, causes of resource conflict were exclusion of resources access from the park and illegal activity made either individually or in a group to access resources from the park by residents living in and around the park. There was no significant difference among kebeles and wealth classes, except lack of income (χ2 = 8.083, DF = 2, P = 0.018). However, majority (63.5%) of the respondents had a positive attitude and the remaining (36.5%) had a negative attitude towards the park conservation. To reduce this conflict, different options were suggested by stakeholders: local community should be involved in the management of the park, compensation scheme should be made for crop raiding and livestock predation by wild fauna, government and NGOs should take initiatives in bringing developmental projects for local communities, and awareness creation of local community should also be made. Key words: Attitude, illegal activity, management options, protected areas, punishment and stakeholder.

Nutritional evaluation of fodder, its preference and crop raiding by wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Sonitpur District of Assam, India

Aim: The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the nutritive value of fodder in natural habitat, cultivated crops and their preference by wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in forest and non-forest areas in four seasons using field observation in Sonitpur District of Assam; since, there were frequent incidences of crop raiding by wild elephant leading to loss of property and human-elephant conflict. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in four seasons. The study included forest areas of Sonai-Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, part of Nameri National Park and high human-elephant conflicted areas of non-forest near to the sanctuary and parks. The consumed fodders were identified, collected and evaluated. The proximate composition was determined using AOAC (1990). Results: Total 39 different fodder species of 18 families including herbs, climber, grasses, paddy seeds, paddy saplings, plants and its leaves, bark, fruits, and roots were recorded to be utilized by elephants. The first three family of fodder that elephant relished more were Poaceae (46.15%), Musaceae (7.69%) and Zingiberaceae (5.13%) respectively. The crude protein content of fodder in all seasons, total ash content only in winter and post monsoon seasons and neutral detergent fiber content of fodder between forest and non-forest were significant (p<0.05). Elephants preferred to forage more on nutritionally rich fodder than poor natural fodder. Incidence of crop raiding was more in post monsoon season could be due to availability of nutritionally rich fodder than the poor natural fodder and generally happened in the night. Conclusions: The study revealed that during post monsoon season, there were abundant nutritionally rich sources of cultivated crops than the fodder of natural habitat that might provoke the wild elephants to raid crops. Poaceae shared a major portion of their diet. The findings will definitely help nutritionist, ecologist and policy makers to understand wild elephant’s needs and also to take appropriate measures for conservation of endangered wild Asian elephant as well as mitigation of human-elephant conflict.

Increased stress in Asiatic black bears relates to food limitation, crop raiding, and foraging beyond nature reserve boundaries in China

Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are declining throughout much of their range. In China they are partially protected by a nature reserve system and rely heavily on hard mast as a food source prior to winter denning. Bears may compensate for mast shortages by raiding agricultural crops and killing livestock, mainly outside reserves where they are exposed to increased threats of poaching. We hypothesized that stress would vary with availability of high-quality refugia and fluctuations in mast abundance. We collected fecal samples from free-ranging bears in and around nature reserves in southwestern China, recorded habitat characteristics at each fecal sample location, and quantified abundance of hard mast. We used feces for genetic and endocrine analysis and identified 106 individuals. Feces collected outside reserves, or in agricultural fields within reserves, contained elevated concentrations of glucocorticoid metabolites compared to samples collected in intact, mast-producing forests within reserves. Relationships with habitat variables indicated that the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis of the Asiatic black bear is responsive to human activity, abundance of hard mast, extent of forest cover, and quality of diet. Our findings demonstrate biological reactions of a large mammal to variable forest quality, human threats, and foraging relative to boundaries of protected areas.

English

Crop damage is a serious source of conflict in communities adjacent to protected areas. Data on crop raiding were collected through questionnaires in villages at different distances from the Serengeti National Park in northern Tanzania. Multiple response analyses were used to calculate the frequencies of the types of crops damaged, the levels of crops growth when damaged and the estimated economic losses caused per household. The results indicate that crop raiding differed significantly on farms along a distance gradient from the protected area. Baboons were reported to be the most destructive wild animals, followed by elephants, which were destructive especially in the villages located near the protected area. Wild animals caused significant economic losses for households. We recommend further studies on the crop yield gap caused by crop-raiding wild animals and human-primate conflict in communities around protected areas. For effective protection of crops from wild animals, we recommend that local communities adopt a combination of methods to reduce the levels of crop raiding. Key words: Crop raiding, Serengeti ecosystem, human-wildlife conflict, wild animals.

Human-wildlife conflict and wildlife watershed management

In India, man-animal conflict is seen across the country in a variety of forms, including monkey menace in the urban areas, crop raiding by ungulates and wild pigs, depredation by elephants and cattle & human killing by tigers and leopards. Damage to agricultural crops and property, killing of livestock and human beings are some of the worst forms of man-animal conflict. One of the main challenges in and around any reserve forest area is to avoid or at least to minimize the incidences of man-animal conflict. An attempt has been made to analyze one of the main reasons (acute shortage of water in forest areas) behind such conflicts and suggest remedial measures to minimize this menace by adopting appropriate watershed management techniques.

Mortality of the Endangered Asian elephant Elephas maximus by electrocution in Odisha, India

AbstractElephants are threatened globally by habitat loss, poaching and accelerating levels of human–elephant conflict. In the state of Odisha, east India, electrocution by domestic electric power lines is causing mortality of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus. We collated data on elephant mortality from such electrocution in the villages surrounding elephant habitat for a period of 12 years (2001–2012). During this period 118 elephants were killed in 91 incidences. Most deaths (73.68%) were a result of accidental contact with electric power lines whilst elephants were moving into agricultural areas for crop raiding. The increasing human population, poor electrical infrastructure and ivory poaching pose serious threats to the continued survival of these elephants. To reduce elephant mortality from electrocution and to ensure the long-term survival of this population of elephants we recommend strengthening of the electrical infrastructure, minimizing habitat destruction, increasing public awareness of the problem, and stronger law enforcement.

Perceptions of farmers in Bangladesh to Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) as an Agricultural Pest in

We explored the degree to which Bangladeshi farmers perceive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) as agricultural pests, as related to the type of farming and other demographic profile of the farmers. We analysed the size and cropping patterns of farms raided by wild elephants, the extent and nature of crop loss, the months and crop-raiding time; and the size of elephants’ herds that caused crop-raiding incidents. The average loss of entire crops increased with distance from the park up to 300 m and then decreased with greater the distance. The greatest loss due to crop raiding was associated with specific crops. Farmers incurred the greatest mean losses in terms of cost from like rice, vegetables, banana, and teak. The highest proportion of small losses occurred during the early evening, while the greatest financial losses occurred during late evening. Wild elephants raided crops throughout most of the year, but the greatest loss and cost were incurred during the monsoon season. The proportion of crops lost varied with the herd size of elephant responsible for crop-raiding and the duration of crop-raiding. Differences were found in the views of farmers regarding the perceptions towards elephant as pest. Considering crop-raiding elephant herd as pest has been given different views by the farmers based on their financial/comfortable status.

Role of local culture, religion, and human attitudes in the conservation of sacred populations of a threatened ‘pest’ species

Indigenous belief systems and informal institutions that result in the conservation of wild species or sites exemplify biocultural conservation. The erosion of cultural beliefs and practices can have adverse, often severe, consequences for biodiversity. We explored the relationships among informal institutions, religion, and human attitudes toward sacred populations of a threatened, endemic species, Sclater’s monkey (Cercopithecus sclateri), in two communities in southeastern Nigeria. Due to habitat loss and hunting pressure across the species’ range, monkeys in these two sites live alongside people, raid farms and gardens, and are commonly viewed as pests. Using structured (n = 410) and semi-structured (n = 21) interviews, we examined factors influencing residents’ views of the monkeys, mechanisms affecting adherence to social taboos against harming monkeys, and implications for conservation. Our analyses revealed that most residents, particularly those from one community, women, and farmers, held negative opinions of the monkeys. Crop and garden raiding by monkeys had the most adverse effect on people’s attitudes. Although the adoption of Christianity weakened residents’ views regarding the no-killing taboos, continued adherence to the taboos was particularly influenced by supernatural retribution in one site and community disapproval in the other. Only one community widely conferred symbolic importance on the monkeys. Such site differences illustrate the value of local cultural understanding in conservation. Pre-intervention studies of this nature allow for the development of locally and culturally sensitive conservation programs, as well as better-informed assessments of what interventions are most likely to be effective.

English

A study on population size of hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas hamadryas) and its conflict with people was carried out from August 2011 to December 2013 in Awash National Park, Ethiopia. Abundance was estimated using total count method at five counting sites. To assess the species conflict with humans, questionnaires and structured interview methods were used. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical methods SPSS version 15. The total number of individuals from August 2011 to November 2013 was 1581 and 1845, respectively. Abundance has no significant difference between wet and dry seasons (P &lt; 0.05). There was no significant difference between the population of hamadryas baboon in 2011/2012 and 2013 (P &lt; 0.05). There was no significant change in the rate of change in the population (P &lt; 0.05). However, there was significant difference between male and female population of hamadryas baboon in 2011/2012 (P &lt; 0.05). In 2012/2013 count, the number comprised of 26% adult male, 19% adult female, 9% sub-adult male, 14% sub-adult female, 11% juvenile male, 18% juvenile female and 3% infants. The proportion of female population was more in all age groups except for infants where sex identification was not possible. The species in the study area was highly influenced by forage resource distribution and hence, the high proportion of individual number was found in the northern part of the park, where more forage was available. The result of human survey showed that the overwhelming number (93%) of respondents felt that there was high conflict between people and hamadryas baboon. 92% of the respondents also noted that there was habitat encroachment including deforestation, overgrazing, charcoal production for fuel, and vegetation clearance for settlement in the park. Moreover, majority of the respondents witnessed frequent killing of baboons by farmers as a measure against alleged crop raiding by the species and also considerable number of species are killed by reckless vehicle and truck drivers on the high way crossing the park. About 64% of the respondents also felt that little was done by the park authority to create awareness on the local people about the economic and ecological benefits of wildlife species. Therefore, to minimize human-hamadryas baboon conflict, conservation measures that would ease human encroachment pressure on the habitat and increased local people&rsquo;s awareness should be practiced. &nbsp; Key words: Abundance, conflict, conservation, hamadryas baboon, park.

Farmers’ Perceptions and Actions to Decrease Crop Raiding by Forest-Dwelling Primates Around a Rwandan Forest Fragment

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) presents an increasing challenge to conservation, particularly in densely populated parts of low-income countries. This article assessed one form of conflict, crop raiding by forest-dwelling primates, along the boundary of a tropical montane forest fragment (Gishwati Forest) in western Rwanda. Variation in species involved, crops affected, differences in magnitude with season and distance to the forest boundary, and the nature of mitigation efforts were assessed through semi-structured interviews with farmers and field-based observations during June and July 2009. Substantial losses of crops were reported, with replacement costs possibly reaching 10–20% of total household income. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Cercopithecus monkeys were the sole reported raiders, mainly affecting maize and legumes. Mitigation was restricted to guarding of crops and modification of farming practices, the latter potentially having significant dietary consequences for subsistence farmers. These findings highlight the potentially high economic costs, and food security effects of HWC.

The role of elephantLoxodonta africanapathways as a spatial variable in crop-raiding location

AbstractShort-range elephantLoxodonta africanamovements were examined in a heterogeneous landscape mosaic of settlements, crop fields and remnant forest in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia. We explored the penetration of the landscape through the use of permanent pathways and determined the impact of pathway use on crop-raiding location. Pathways were linear, devoid of vegetation and maintained by repeated movement. Functional connectivity of pathways was not species-specific, and pathways were used by various species. Elephants travelled in single file at night and we recorded selective pathway use: females selected pathways away from settlements to access water, whereas males used pathways among settlements to launch crop raids. Proximity of raided fields to the nearest pathway was the only significant spatial variable explaining crop-raiding location. Bulls were responsible for all crop-raiding incidents. We conclude that (1) pathways were the most significant spatial variable influencing which fields were raided, (2) crop-raiding from pathways may maximize foraging efficiency by reducing time spent and distance travelled while foraging, (3) pathways may facilitate penetration of the matrix by connecting predictable resources (crops) with preferred shelter areas, crossing points at roads and preferred drinking spots, and (4) access to the Kwandu River is restricted by settlements, predictably resulting in human–elephant conflict. By highlighting the relevance of pathways for movement of elephants we show that an understanding of the use of pathways is important for land-use planning in conservation landscapes, specifically with regard to human–elephant conflict. We also argue for the need to more fully explore pathway occurrence and use at larger spatial scales.

Assessing the cost of living with elephants (Loxodonta africana) in areas adjacent to Meru National Park, Kenya

Crop raiding by the elephants is a serious and recurring management problem around protected areas in Kenya such as Meru National Park. Crop-raiding menace is one of the most significant of human–elephant conflicts in Meru National Park. The distribution, impact, and conservation implications of the increased elephant crop raiding in areas adjacent to Meru National Park is attributed to the changes in land use systems within these areas. Crop raiding by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) was monitored in the area adjacent to Meru National Park between August 2010 and July 2011. From the study, 144 farms were raided and farmers lost crops amounting to USD 120,308.60. Crop raiding was higher during the month of August 2010 (KES 2,714,295 or USD 33,928). The study suggests capacity building for communities in order to safeguard their crops against elephant raiding. Other probable measures put forward to mitigate this include the development of alternative water sources and the need to implement electric fence around the remaining section of the Park boundary which is affected by elephant.

Human-Wildlife Conflicts: Case Study in Wondo Genet District, Southern Ethiopia

The purpose of this research was to identify the type of human- wildlife conflicts and wild mammals that cause the conflict, determine the extent of damage and to provide a better understanding of the causes of human-wildlife conflict in Wondo Genet district. The study was carried out from December 2013 to June 2013. Four sample areas were selected to collect data on human-wildlife conflict; Gotu, Wosha Soyoma and Wethera Kechema villages and Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources. Data were collected using questionnaires, one to one interviews, observations and cross checking of crop loss using quadrants in selected crop lands, reviewing of literature, and was later analyzed using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS). In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the target population comprised the households living in sampled areas, local administrators and staffs who lived within Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources. The study established that crop damages, livestock killing, human disruption and property destruction were some of the mostly reported damages. The results of the study further indicated that animal species most involved in HWC were warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), Olive baboon (Papio anubis), porcupine (Hystrix cristata), Giant mole rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) and African civet (Civettictis civetta). They were involved mostly in crop raiding/ damage. Most raided crops were maize (Zea mays), sugar cane (Saccharum africanum) and Enset (Ensete ventricosum). Over 75% of the population of Wondo Genet district was affected by crop raiders. Therefore, conservation education is paramount, coherent land use plans should be emphasized to determine where certain crops can be grown.

A Nonlocal Problem from Conservation Biology

In this paper we study a mathematical model arising from crop raiding of large-bodied mammals living in the bio-diversity-rich tropics. The topic is important because it involves highly threaten species that can cause significant economic damage and be killed in retribution. The mathematical model consists of a nonlocal spatially heterogeneous parabolic problem of logistic type. Our main analytical result characterizes the existence of positive solutions of the model, and it provides us with some multiplicity results. The numerics computes them and ascertains their local stability in a simple class of symmetric one-dimensional prototype models.

Impact of Tourism on Livelihoods

Wildlife tourism is gaining popularity day by day. With the increase in the number of tourist influx in Protected Areas (PA), new facilities to satisfy their needs are coming in the villages around the PA. Tourism has both negative and positive impacts in these rural areas. To know the impacts of tourism, a study was conducted in two villages namely Khatia and Mocha which are situated near Kanha National Park (KNP). The main aim of study was to identify the change in the lives of those villagers who have sold their land to resort/lodge owners. A survey was conducted of villagers who had sold their land in the last five years. Data was obtained regarding change in land use, use of income obtained from sale, reasons for selling the land, change in livelihood patterns etc. It was found out that the main reasons for selling the land included exasperation due to crop raiding by wild ungulates and the attractive price offered by the resort owners. The land use pattern changed drastically leading to a complete change in landscape from one dominated by agricultural fields to one choked by construction of posh resorts. The use of money realized from sale was majorly done to purchase land holdings in other villages or gypsies to be used for tourism purposes. Wilcoxon Signed Rank test shows that there is a significant increase in the income of villages after the sale although many marginal farmers are working as laborers on the same piece of land they once owned.

The Issue of Collaborative Management for Crop Raiding : Analyzing Farmer&apos;s Perceptions according to Farm Class

The Issue of Collaborative Management for Crop Raiding : Analyzing Farmer&apos;s Perceptions according to Farm Class

Wildlife crop damage valuation and conservation: conflicting perception by local farmers in the Luangwa Valley, eastern Zambia

Wildlife conservation in Luangwa Valley depends on perception by local communities, and is affected by wildlife crop raiding. Perception of local farmers were elucidated between 2006/7 and 2008/9 farming seasons. Data collection was done using prescribed forms and semi-structured questionnaires by trained field assistants. The case study findings confirm that firstly, perceived and actual crop losses differed by 49.49 and 7.78% for mono-specific stands of maize and cotton, respectively. Secondly, opportunity costs incurred and perceived by local farmers were higher than direct costs. Most farmers (79.83%, n = 95) associated opportunity costs of wildlife crop damage with loss of sleep and loss of time for other chores, when providing crop protection. Thirdly, conservation objectives and local farmers’ needs and aspirations were antithetical. Majority of local farmers (82.59%, n = 204) expanded or segregated crop fields, thereby degrading wildlife habitats. Ensuing negative perception posed high risks to wildlife conservation in Luangwa Valley. Incentivising performance conservation payments to local farmers are recommended, to increase their tolerance levels while incurring costs of living with wildlife. Implementation of improved environmental education and awareness creation, coupled with capacity building through appropriate trainings and facilitated infrastructure in resolving human-wildlife conflicts are critical. Key words: Wildlife crop raiding, contingent valuation, opportunity costs, conservation, Luangwa Valley.