Crop In Spain Research Articles

Evaluating the Influence of Water Scarcity on the Host Response of Garlic to the Stem and Bulb Nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci.

Ditylenchus dipsaci is a plant-parasitic nematode with a great economic impact on bulbous crops, including garlic (Allium sativum L.), and is distributed worldwide, particularly in the Mediterranean region. Traditionally, garlic was a rainfed crop in Spain, but irrigated areas have increased during the last few decades. However, the expected climatic conditions, with longer and more intense droughts, will make it necessary to reduce the water supply to garlic crops. This poses the urgent need to select garlic cultivars more tolerant to water scarcity and that are also more resistant to plant pathogenic organisms. The aim of this work was to analyze the influence of water stress on the host response of garlic plants to D. dipsaci. The specific objectives were to evaluate the level of nematode infestation in plants from four garlic genotypes treated with a reduced irrigation regime and compare them with those of control plants not subjected to water stress. The observed results were correlated with changes in the bulb and root development, as well as in the physiological parameters (total chlorophyll concentration and proline accumulation). The effects were different depending on whether the plants were subjected to water stress before or after nematode inoculation, as well as whether the water stress was continuous or discontinuous. Garlic inter-cultivar variability also affected the obtained results.

Effectiveness of the parasitoid Anisopteromalus calandrae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) in the control of Sitophilus zeamais and Rhyzopertha dominica in paddy rice

Rice is an important cereal crop in Spain that is frequently attacked by pests that cause significant quantitative and qualitative losses. Among them, the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, is the key pest, and the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica, is a serious pest found later in the season. The cosmopolitan ectoparasitoid, Anisopteromalus calandrae, which attacks late-instar larvae of coleopterans that develop inside grain kernels, has been reported as an efficient natural enemy. In this study, we evaluated whether the control efficacy of this parasitoid on S. zeamais was affected by the presence of the alternative host, R. dominica. Our laboratory experiment demonstrated the parasitoid preference for S. zeamais larvae when mixed with R. dominica larvae at different proportions. This preference for the maize weevil larvae allowed us to maintain a similar control efficacy of S. zeamais when it was offered alone than when it was offered together with R. dominica larvae. In our second experiment, done in 500 kg bags of paddy rice, similar results were obtained, since the presence of R. dominica larvae did not alter the control efficacy of A. calandrae on S. zeamais larvae. Therefore, our results confirmed a good perspective for implementing the use of this natural enemy as a control tool in big bags of paddy rice.

Use of Bacteria Isolated from Berry Rhizospheres as Biocontrol Agents for Charcoal Rot and Root-Knot Nematode Strawberry Diseases

Strawberry is a high-value crop in Spain, where fruits for fresh consumption are produced off-season and exported to central and northern European countries. Soil-borne pathogens (SBP), such as Macrophomina phaseolina and Meloidogyne hapla, are widely spread in strawberry crops in Spain. The prevalence of these pathogens is a significant barrier to producing strawberries of premium quality and at profitable yields. The current ban on fumigant pesticides drives the search for alternative SBP control methods that can simultaneously control both SBP. Twenty-nine bacterial strains were isolated and identified from strawberry and blueberry rhizospheres and screened for plant growth promotion activities as well as for biocontrol potential on M. phaseolina and M. hapla. Two of these bacterial strains (Bacillus velezensis FC37 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa AC17), together with Brevibacterium frigoritolerans Hvs8 coming from IFAPA’s bacterial collection, were selected and evaluated in planta for their biocontrol potential on strawberry SBP diseases caused by M. phaseolina and M. hapla. The three tested bacterial strains reduced charcoal rot disease severity, crown incidence and severity, and petiole colonization by M. phaseolina. Root-knot nematode (RKN) symptoms were reduced by P. aeruginosa AC17 and B. velezensis FC37, but RKN reproduction was only reduced in plants inoculated with P. aeruginosa AC17. Pseudomonas aeruginosa AC17 showed the greatest potential as a biocontrol agent candidate to be included in integrated disease management programs to control the two most prevalent soil-borne pathogens of strawberry in Spain.

Survey of Candidatus Liberibacter Solanacearum and Its Associated Vectors in Potato Crop in Spain.

Simple SummaryZebra chip disease (ZC) in potato is an economically important disorder, documented in North and Central America and New Zealand. It is associated with the bacterium ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ (CaLsol), which is transmitted by the psyllid Bactericera cockerelli. The characteristic symptom of ZC is a dark and light striped pattern in chips, making them commercially unacceptable. Naturally CaLsol-infected potato tubers were reported in Europe, where the threat of ZC for European potato crops is a major concern. This work studied the presence and abundance of ZC symptoms and CaLsol in potato plants, as well as those psyllid species that eventually could transmit the bacterium, in the main producing areas in Spain. Very few symptomatic and CaLsol-positive plants were detected in Mainland Spain, and any positive plant was detected in the Canary Islands. Most of the adult psyllids captured were identified as Bactericera nigricornis, and some of them as Bactericera trigonica, but no B. cockerelli was detected. B. nigricornis was found widely distributed in the northern half of the Iberian Peninsula, and it was the only one able to feed and reproduce on potato plants. However, this psyllid does not seem sufficient to pose a threat to potato production, due to the scarce number of specimens and because the frequency of B. nigricornis specimens that were CaLsol+ was very low.‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ (CaLsol), the etiological agent of potato zebra chip (ZC), is transmitted to potato plants by the psyllid Bactericera cockerelli (Šulc, 1909) in North and Central America and New Zealand. The risk of the dispersion of ZC in Spain depends on the presence of an efficient vector. This work studies the presence and abundance of ZC symptoms and CaLsol in potato plants, as well as the presence and abundance of psyllid species associated with potato crops in the main producing areas in Spain. Eighty-eight plots were surveyed punctually to detect ZC symptoms and psyllid species in the main potato-producing areas. Furthermore, fourteen potato plots were surveyed by different sampling methods during the cropping season to detect psyllid species from 2016 to 2018. Very few symptomatic and CaLsol-positive plants were detected in Mainland Spain, and any positive plant was detected in the Canary Islands. Most of the adult psyllids captured were identified as Bactericera nigricornis (Foerster, 1848), and some of them as Bactericera trigonica, but no B. cockerelli was detected. B. nigricornis was found widely distributed in the northern half of the Iberian Peninsula; however, this psyllid does not seem sufficient to pose a threat to potato production, due to the scarce number of specimens and because the frequency of B. nigricornis specimens that were CaLsol+ was very low.

Pest mites and their interaction with Phytoseiidae and other arthropod predators in an almond orchard in South-West Spain

The almond crop in Spain has increased in importance in recent years and consequently there is a need to improve knowledge about pests, diseases, and weeds. The present study was conducted from 2017 to 2020, with the objective of determining the fauna of spider mites and their natural enemies, with a special emphasis on phytoseiids. The main spider mite species was Tetranychus urticae Koch, and secondary species were Bryobia rubrioculus (Scheuten) and Eutetranychus banksii (McGregor). Phytoseiidae were the most abundant group of natural enemies, with 59% of the individuals observed; Euseius stipulatus (Athias-Henriot) was the predominant species, accounting for 96% of adult females identified, Typhlodromus (Anthoseius) athenas Swirski & Ragusa accounted for the remaining 4%. Other (potential) natural enemies were Chrysopidae, Scolothrips longicornis Priesner, and Stethorus sp. with 36, 2, and 3%, respectively, of the natural enemy individuals. The seasonal pattern of T. urticae indicated population peaks from July to September, and its control was based on miticides in most seasons. Euseius stipulatus and T. athenas appeared mainly in May–June and did not show interaction with the spider mite population. Chrysopidae were present throughout the season, from May to October in the 4 years, but no direct relationship with the spider mite population was observed. In contrast, the seasonal pattern of both S. longicornis and Stethorus sp. coincided with the most important peaks of spider mites and these predators were seen in the spider mite colonies, although in very low numbers. The importance of these latter specialized spider mite predators and ways to strengthen them are discussed.

First Detection and Molecular Characterization of Apple Stem Grooving Virus, Apple Chlorotic Leaf Spot Virus, and Apple Hammerhead Viroid in Loquat in Spain.

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is an important crop in Spain. To date, only one viral species, apple stem pitting virus (ASPV), has been detected in Spanish loquat orchards. In this study, the presence of additional viruses infecting this crop in Spain was investigated. RT-PCR and high-throughput sequencing (HTS) of symptomatic loquat plants led to first-time detection and characterization of apple stem grooving virus (ASGV), also known as citrus tatter leaf virus (CTLV), and apple chlorotic leaf spot virus (ACLSV) from Spain with description of nearly complete genomic sequences. The frequency of ACLSV infection was the highest, with over 30% of the samples testing positive and were also detected as coinfections with ASGV and ASPV, although most of the samples infected were symptomless. Studies on all the full-length sequences available in the databases were performed in order to establish the phylogenetic relationships of the Spanish isolates of these two viral species. Moreover, apple hammerhead viroid (AHVd) was also detected to infect loquat, the first host different from apple reported for this viroid to date.

Cover Crop Contributions to Improve the Soil Nitrogen and Carbon Sequestration in Almond Orchards (SW Spain)

Almond (Prunus dulcis Mill. [D.A. Webb]) is the third most widely spread crop in Spain and has traditionally been cultivated in marginal areas and shallow soils under rainfed conditions. However, it recently has been progressively introduced in flat irrigated areas. The implementation of cover crops in the inter-rows of woody crops has been proven as a suitable strategy to reduce the runoff and soil erosion but they also can boost soil quality and health. A field experiment was conducted during two-monitoring seasons to examine the soil nitrogen and carbon sequestration potential of three seeded cover crops [barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth), and a mixture of 65% barley and 35% vetch] and a control of spontaneous flora in irrigated almond orchards (SW Spain). Here, we show that barley provided the highest biomass amount, followed by mixture covers, vetch, and the control treatment. Also, vetch covered the soil faster in the growing stage, but its residues were decomposed easier than barley and mixture treatments during the decomposition period after mowing, providing less soil protection when the risk of water erosion with autumn rainfall is high. On the other hand, vetch improved soil nitrate content by over 35% with respect to barley and mixture treatments at 0–20 cm soil depth throughout the studied period. In addition, a greater carbon input to the soil was determined in the barley plot. That is, the mixture and barley cover crops had higher potential for carbon sequestration, augmenting the soil organic carbon by more than 1.0 Mg ha−1 during the study period. Thus, taking into consideration the findings of the present experiment, the establishment of a seeded cover crop would be more advisable than spontaneous flora to mitigate soil erosion, enhancing soil fertility and carbon sequestration in irrigated almond plantations in Mediterranean semi-arid regions.

Performance and environmental accounting of nutrient cycling models to estimate nitrogen emissions in agriculture and their sensitivity in life cycle assessment

PurposeSeveral models are available in the literature to estimate agricultural emissions. From life cycle assessment (LCA) perspective, there is no standardized procedure for estimating emissions of nitrogen or other nutrients. This article aims to compare four agricultural models (PEF, SALCA, Daisy and Animo) with different complexity levels and test their suitability and sensitivity in LCA.MethodsRequired input data, obtained outputs, and main characteristics of the models are presented. Then, the performance of the models was evaluated according to their potential feasibility to be used in estimating nitrogen emissions in LCA using an adapted version of the criteria proposed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and other relevant studies, to judge their suitability in LCA. Finally, nitrogen emissions from a case study of irrigated maize in Spain were estimated using the selected models and were tested in a full LCA to characterize the impacts.Results and discussionAccording to the set of criteria, the models scored, from best to worst: Daisy (77%), SALCA (74%), Animo (72%) and PEF (70%), being Daisy the most suitable model to LCA framework. Regarding the case study, the estimated emissions agreed to literature data for the irrigated corn crop in Spain and the Mediterranean, except N2O emissions. The impact characterization showed differences of up to 56% for the most relevant impact categories when considering nitrogen emissions. Additionally, an overview of the models used to estimate nitrogen emissions in LCA studies showed that many models have been used, but not always in a suitable or justified manner.ConclusionsAlthough mechanistic models are more laborious, mainly due to the amount of input data required, this study shows that Daisy could be a suitable model to estimate emissions when fertilizer application is relevant for the environmental study. In addition, and due to LCA urgently needing a solid methodology to estimate nitrogen emissions, mechanistic models such as Daisy could be used to estimate default values for different archetype scenarios.

'Mini PS': A new mini melon breeding line exploiting the "Dudaim" variability - Short Communication

‘Piel de Sapo’ is one of the most consumed market class of melons in the Mediterranean area and it represents an important economic crop in Spain. The ‘Mini PS’ melon breeding line, which bears two main introgressions from the dudaim ‘Queen’s pocket’ melon in the Piel de Sapo genetic background, was evaluated for its fruit quality traits in three environments. Some interesting commercial characteristics were detected, such as a notable decrease in the fruit weight and a rounder shape, compared with Piel de Sapo, while the other quality traits were not altered. Thus, this mini melon line, ideal as a personal melon, may be useful in the development of new melon cultivars.

Fusarium Consortium Populations Associated with Asparagus Crop in Spain and Their Role on Field Decline Syndrome.

Asparagus Decline Syndrome (ADS) is one of the main phytosanitary problems of asparagus crop worldwide. Diseased plants and soil samples from 41 fields from three main production areas of Spain were surveyed. Eight Fusarium species belonging to seven species complexes were identified in soils: F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum, F. redolens, F. solani sensu stricto, F. equiseti, F. culmorum, F. compactum and F. acuminatum. Fusarium oxysporum was the most prevalent species. Statistical correlation (R2 = 88%) was established between F. oxysporum inoculum density and the average temperature of the warmest month. A relationship was also established between three crop factors (average temperature, crop age and F. oxysporum inoculum density) and field disease indices. Significant differences were observed between the distribution of F. oxysporum propagules in white and green asparagus fields. Thirteen Fusarium species belonging to seven species complexes were identified from roots of diseased plants, being F. oxysporum the most prevalent. F. proliferatum, F. oxysporum and F. redolens showed pathogenicity to asparagus and were the main species associated to ADS. Fusarium oxysporum was the species with the highest genetic diversity displaying 14 sequence-based haplotypes with no geographic differentiation. This work contributes to understanding the Fusarium complex associated to ADS for developing accurate integrated disease management strategies.

First Report of Root Rot on Strawberry Caused by Binucleate Rhizoctonia AG-A in Spain

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is an important crop in Spain. In January 2018, ‘Florida Fortuna’ strawberry plants exhibiting poor growth were observed in a fruit production field in Palos de la Frontera, Huelva (southwestern Spain). These plants were from nurseries in Avila Province (Spain) that had soils with a high clay content. Affected plants showed varying degrees of stunting, black necrosis on basal petioles, brown to dark-brown discoloration in roots, and few new roots emerging from the crown. Two foci were found and surveyed (six plants per focus). Petiole, crown, and root pieces of symptomatic plants were surface sterilized in 1% sodium hypochlorite for 2 min, rinsed in sterile distilled water, and air-dried in a laminar flow cabinet. Disinfested pieces were transferred to Petri dishes containing potato dextrose agar (PDA) and incubated for 7 days at 25°C. Five fungal isolates were recovered. Colonies were white to pale brown and had floccose aerial mycelia. Two isolates were purified by cutting hyphal tips from their margins. Microscopic examination showed morphological characters coinciding with Rhizoctonia (Sneh et al. 1991). Nuclear staining with acridine orange solution (20 μl/ml), prepared in acetic acid buffer, pH 7.2, for 15 min (Seema et al. 2012) showed two nuclei per cell in the hyphae of the two isolates. Mean hyphal diameter was 4.79 µm. No sclerotia were formed after 20 days on PDA at 25°C. The morphological characteristics of the isolates resembled those of binucleate Rhizoctonia (BNR). Species identity was confirmed for one isolate by sequencing the intergenic spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA with the primers ITS1 and ITS4 (White et al. 1990). Identities of the resulting sequences were confirmed by BLAST analysis. The sequences were 100% identical to those of Ceratobasidium sp. AG-A KC782943 and were deposited as MH666073 in GenBank. Hyphal anastomosis tests were conducted by paring isolates with seven known tester isolates of BNR AG on 2% water agar. Anastomosis was observed with AG-A tester isolate. The isolates were identified as a BNR AG-A. To confirm the pathogenicity of the isolate, five runner strawberry plants ‘Rociera FNM’ and five ‘Rabida FNM’ were inoculated with PDA colonized plugs 1 cm in diameter located at the crown base. Five noninoculated plants were used as negative controls. Plants were grown in 200-ml pots with peat in a growth chamber at 25/22°C (day/night) with a 12-h photoperiod. Symptoms started appearing on inoculated plants 18 days after inoculation. All inoculated plants showed the same symptoms described above. Disease severity was scored as proportion of affected or senescent leaves. Inoculated ‘Rociera FNM’ plants showed 36% more affected leaves than noninoculated ones, while this difference in ‘Rabida FNM’ plants was 29%. Inoculated ‘Rociera FNM’ plants also had significantly lower dry weights (mean value: 3.91 g) than control plants (mean value: 8.02 g). The fungus was reisolated and confirmed to be Rhizoctonia sp. The BNR AG-A is one of the most common groups associated with root rot and a serious threat to strawberry production worldwide (Fang et al. 2013). To our knowledge, this is the first report of BNR AG-A causing root rot of strawberry in Spain. From now, growers will have to consider this pathogen for soil health management and for diseased plant diagnosis.

Persimmon orchards harbor an abundant and well-established predatory mite fauna.

Traditionally persimmon cultivation has been considered a minor crop in Spain, but in recent years this crop has experienced an important increase in both cultivated area and production. This increase has been mainly attributed to the widespread adoption of a new postharvest treatment which considerably extends the fruit commercialization period. The sudden expansion of this crop has not allowed time to correctly develop an integrated pest management (IPM) program. Consequently, chemical treatments have become the main strategy to lessen the impact of pests. Given the importance of phytoseiids in other Mediterranean fruit crops, where they are the basis of IPM, we sought to determine whether they could be similarly employed in persimmon crops. For this, we studied the predatory mite complex, the phytoseiid population dynamics and the potential prey for them during three consecutive seasons in four persimmon orchards, two of which managed conventionally, and two organically. Phytoseiids were abundant throughout the season, found on average at a density of more than 1 predatory mite per leaf. The most abundant species was Euseius stipulatus (57.3%) followed by Typhlodromus phialatus (24.8%), Amblyseius andersoni (17.1%) and Paraseiulus talbii (0.8%). Persimmon leaves provided a diversity of prey for predatory mites throughout the year, the most abundant being mealybugs, coccids, whiteflies and thrips. The abundance of predatory mites was significantly correlated to the abundance of potential prey available. From our results we anticipate that phytoseiids will be key actors in the development of persimmon IPM. Their role in this crop is discussed, as well as how to conserve their populations.

First Report of Root Rot on Strawberry Caused by Binucleate Rhizoctonia AG-K in Spain

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is an important crop in Spain. In January 2018, ‘Florida Fortuna’ strawberry plants exhibiting poor growth were observed in a fruit production field in Palos de la Frontera, Huelva (southwestern Spain). These plants were from nurseries in Avila Province (Spain) that had soils with a high clay content. Affected plants showed varying degrees of stunting, black necrosis on basal petioles, brown to dark-brown discoloration in roots, and few new roots emerging from the crown. Two foci were found and surveyed (six plants per focus). Petiole, crown, and root pieces of symptomatic plants were surface sterilized in 1% sodium hypochlorite for 2 min, rinsed in sterile distilled water, and air-dried in a laminar flow cabinet. Disinfested pieces were transferred to Petri dishes containing potato dextrose agar (PDA) and incubated for 7 days at 25°C. Five fungal isolates were recovered. Colonies were white to pale brown and had floccose aerial mycelia. Two isolates were purified by cutting hyphal tips from their margins. Microscopic examination showed morphological characters coinciding with Rhizoctonia (Sneh et al. 1991). Nuclear staining with acridine orange solution (20 μl/ml), prepared in acetic acid buffer, pH 7.2, for 15 min (Seema et al. 2012) showed two nuclei per cell in the hyphae of the two isolates. Mean hyphal diameter was 4.79 µm. No sclerotia were formed after 20 days on PDA at 25°C. The morphological characteristics of the isolates resembled those of binucleate Rhizoctonia (BNR). Species identity was confirmed for one isolate by sequencing the intergenic spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA with the primers ITS1 and ITS4 (White et al. 1990). Identities of the resulting sequences were confirmed by BLAST analysis. The sequences were 100% identical to those of Ceratobasidium sp. AG-A KC782943 and were deposited as MH666073 in GenBank. Hyphal anastomosis tests were conducted by paring isolates with seven known tester isolates of BNR AG on 2% water agar. Anastomosis was observed with AG-A tester isolate. The isolates were identified as a BNR AG-A. To confirm the pathogenicity of the isolate, five runner strawberry plants ‘Rociera FNM’ and five ‘Rabida FNM’ were inoculated with PDA colonized plugs 1 cm in diameter located at the crown base. Five noninoculated plants were used as negative controls. Plants were grown in 200-ml pots with peat in a growth chamber at 25/22°C (day/night) with a 12-h photoperiod. Symptoms started appearing on inoculated plants 18 days after inoculation. All inoculated plants showed the same symptoms described above. Disease severity was scored as proportion of affected or senescent leaves. Inoculated ‘Rociera FNM’ plants showed 36% more affected leaves than noninoculated ones, while this difference in ‘Rabida FNM’ plants was 29%. Inoculated ‘Rociera FNM’ plants also had significantly lower dry weights (mean value: 3.91 g) than control plants (mean value: 8.02 g). The fungus was reisolated and confirmed to be Rhizoctonia sp. The BNR AG-A is one of the most common groups associated with root rot and a serious threat to strawberry production worldwide (Fang et al. 2013). To our knowledge, this is the first report of BNR AG-A causing root rot of strawberry in Spain. From now, growers will have to consider this pathogen for soil health management and for diseased plant diagnosis.

Adaptation of the VegSyst model to outdoor conditions for leafy vegetables and processing tomato

The VegSyst model, initially developed for nitrogen (N) and irrigation recommendations for greenhouse-grown vegetable crops, was adapted for outdoor conditions, for lettuce, spinach and processing tomato. The major change introduced into the existing VegSyst model was to include evaporative demand, as transpiration use efficiency (TUE), as an additional determinant of dry matter production (DMP); PAR radiation being the other determinant. For daily simulation of DMP, VegSyst-Outdoors selects the smallest of the two DMP values calculated using both approaches. Data from studies conducted in different locations and years were used for calibration and validation. For lettuce, data from crops grown in California and Spain were used, for three lettuce types – Crisphead, Romaine and Batavia. One crop of each lettuce type was used for calibration. Different crops of Crisphead and Batavia lettuce were used for validation; no data were available for validation of Romaine lettuce. For spinach, calibration was conducted with data from a winter-grown crop grown in Spain, and validation was done with data from a spring-grown crop in Spain from a different region and year. For processing tomato, the calibration crop was grown in Spain, and validation was conducted with data from 10 different crops from California, Italy and Spain, and from different years. Radiation-use efficiency (RUE) values ranged from 2.1 to 2.8 g MJ−1 PAR for the three lettuce types, and were 2.2 and 2.3 g MJ−1 PAR for spinach and processing tomato, respectively. TUE was different among lettuce types, being 3.8 g kg−1 for Crisphead, 5.0 g kg−1 for Romaine, and 5.4 g kg−1 for Batavia. TUE values for spinach and processing tomato were 5.0 and 5.6 g kg−1, respectively. Following adaptation to outdoor conditions, crop DMP, crop N uptake and crop evapotranspiration (ETc) were accurately simulated in most of the validation crops. The diversity of sites and years of the crops examined demonstrated the robustness of the VegSyst model when adapted to outdoor conditions.

Expansion of pistachio cultivation in the Iberian Peninsula: keys to the future

Only 15 years ago pistachio was an almost unknown crop in Spain and Portugal. However, nowadays pistachio production has become a benchmark in terms of profitability of agricultural products. Currently the cultivated area is larger than 15,000 ha and the growth rate is over 40% year-1. The reasons for this are: firstly, the good prices at the point of origin, (with a continuous growth during the last 6 years), and secondly, because of the good adaptation of pistachio tree to the agroclimatic conditions in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. As well, these conditions have favored the production of organic pistachio, which has a very important demand and a high difference with the conventional pistachio price (> € 2 kg-1). “El Chaparrillo”, an Agro-Environmental Research Center (CAC) has led this change, thanks to the research, experimentation and agricultural outreach done by it. Particularly relevant for the spreading of technical knowledge are two governmental initiatives; the first one is the virtual community for professionals involved in pistachio production, which includes news and events from sector and a public forum to solve technical questions. And the other is the operational group for the sustainable production of quality pistachio, included in the European Association for Innovation in Productivity and Agricultural Sustainability, (EAI-AGRI), with EU financial support.

Extracting DNA from dormant buds and cambium tissue of persimmon

Persimmon has been traditionally considered a minor crop in Spain. However, during the last 20 years, persimmon production has exponentially increased mainly due to the commercialization of the fruit without astringency by a process of modified atmospheres. Due to this, a crop which had few important pests in the past, has become a crop in which some harmful organisms, such as mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) or honeydew moths (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), are becoming major pests. With the aim to develop an integrated pest management program (IPM) in persimmon, 5 pesticide-free persimmon orchards located in two production areas in the Valencian Community were chosen to study the presence and dynamics of the arthropods present in this crop (both phytophagous and natural enemies). Stems, leaves, flowers and fruit samples were taken every two weeks during three years (2014-2016). In parallel, persimmon pest species were hierarchized according to their economic impact. The information was used to develop an IPM program for persimmon and made available to the agricultural sector through the IVIA webpage (http://gipcaqui.ivia.es). In this IPM program, pests and natural enemies are identified and described. Sampling methods, economic injury levels and control methods for the main pests are also being developed. Biological control is prioritized as the preferred management method in this IPM program. In this respect, further research is needed to clarify the role of predatory mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae), which are very abundant in this crop.

Barley Types and Varieties in Spain: A Historical Overview

Barley is currently the most cultivated crop in Spain with about three million ha. Its importance stems from its adaptation to areas with poor soil conditions and water stress. The aim of this work is to describe the historical evolution of barley types and varieties of barley grown by farmers in Spain. A historical review has been performed consulting articles and books on history, archeology, and agronomy related with the issue. Different web sites and articles have been also consulted about the current varietal state of barley in Spain. Another important information source came from the CRF (Center of Plant Genetic Resources) of Spain where a great collection of landraces is preserved. First barleys came to Spain about 7600 years BP by three sites: north, east and south. The south entrance is special, because those genotypes could came from a secondary domestication center of barley located in Morocco. Crop spread throughout the country and its cultivation were reported by Romans, Arabs, and Christians after the ‘Reconquista’ (re-conquest). At the beginning of the nineteenth century the first attempt of classification was carried out. Until the 1940s, most barley acreage was sown with ancient landraces, but from that period onward a steady varietal renovation took place up to the present. The history of barley types and varieties in Spain is rich, and a great set of landraces is preserved in seed banks. These landraces may contain genes for resistance and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses.

Characterization of Botryosphaeriaceae species associated with diseased loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) in Spain

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is an important subtropical fruit crop in Spain and other Mediterranean countries. In recent years, characteristic symptoms of branch canker and dieback have been observed in the main cultivated areas of loquat in Spain. The goal of this study was to identify and characterize the species of Botryosphaeriaceae associated with these symptoms. For this, 36 affected orchards were surveyed between 2010 and 2011 in six provinces of southeastern Spain. Eighty‐four isolates belonging to the family Botryosphaeriaceae were recovered from samples with symptoms. These isolates were characterized by means of phenotypical studies, DNA sequence analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and part of the translation elongation factor 1‐α regions, and pathogenicity tests. Ten fungal species were identified: Diplodia malorum, Diplodia olivarum, Diplodia seriata, Diplodia pseudoseriata/Diplodia alatafructa, Diplodia sp., Dothiorella sarmentorum, Neofusicoccum mediterraneum, N. parvum, Spencermartinsia plurivora and S. viticola. In addition, Diplodia eriobotryicola and Dothiorella eriobotryae are newly described. The most frequent species isolated from cankers was D. seriata and, as far as is known, this is the first report of D. malorum, and species belonging to the complex D. pseudoseriata/D. alatafructa, in Spain. All species were pathogenic to 1‐year‐old loquat plants cv. Algerie, with Diplodia sp. and S. viticola as the most virulent.

Winter sowing of adapted lines as a potential yield increase strategy in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.)

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik. subsp. culinaris) is a traditional crop in Spain although current grain yield in Spain is relatively low and unstable. The effect of an early sowing date (winter sowing) on yield in the Spanish Central Plateau (meseta) was analyzed comparing it to the traditional spring sowing. Yield from eleven cultivars currently available for sowing in Spain and two F6:7 populations of recombinant inbred lines (RIL), ´Precoz´ × ´WA8649041´ (89 lines) and ´BGE016365´ × ´ILL1918´ (118 lines), was evaluated in winter and spring sowing dates for three seasons (2005/06, 2006/07 and 2007/08) and two localities. Yield and stability were assessed by the method of consistency of performance with some modifications. When comparing with the best currently available cultivars sown in the traditional spring sowing date, (with an estimated average yield of 43.9 g/m in our experimental conditions), winter sowing using adapted breeding lines proved to be a suitable strategy for increasing lentil yield and yield stability in the Spanish meseta, with an average yield increase of 111% (reaching an estimated yield of 92.8 g/m). Results point to that lentil production can greatly increase in the Spanish meseta if adequate plant materials, such as some of the lines analyzed, are sown at late fall.

Optimization of groundwater abstraction system and distribution pipe in pressurized irrigation systems for minimum cost

A tool named DOPIR (Dimensioning Of Pressurized IRrigation) was developed to optimize the process of water abstraction from an aquifer for pressurized irrigation systems. This tool integrates the main factors throughout the irrigation process, from the water source to the emitter. The objective is to minimize the total cost of water abstraction and application (CT) (investment (Ca) + operation (Cop) per unit of irrigated area according to the type of aquifer, crop water requirement and electricity rate periods. To highlight the usefulness of this tool, DOPIR has been applied to a corn crop in Spain with a permanent sprinkler irrigation system, considering two types of aquifer: confined and unconfined. The effects of parameters such as the static water table in the aquifer (SWT), irrigated area (S), number of subunits in the plot (NS), sprinkler and lateral pipe spacing, and average application rate (ARa) on CT have been analyzed. Results show that energy cost (Ce) is the most important component of CT (50–72 % in the case studies). Thus, it is very important to adapt the design and management of the irrigation and pumping system throughout the irrigation season to the energy rate periods.