Crop Growth Stages Research Articles

Growth, Productivity, Available Nitrogen, Available Phosphors, Available Potassium, Available Sulphur Influenced by Different Plant Spacing and Nitrogen Levels of Maize (Zea mays L.) in Bathinda Districts of Punjab, India

A field experiment was conducted during (Kharif) seasons of 2023 at the Guru Kashi University, Talwandi Sabo, Bathinda, Punjab, to effect of different plant spacing and nitrogen levels on growth, productivity and available NPK of maize. The experiment was laid out in a split plot design with three replications, under three plant spacings of 45 cm x 15 cm, 55 cm x 20 cm, and 65 cm x 25 cm were included in the treatment plan, along with four nitrogen levels: control (75% of RDN (31.5 kg N/ha), 100% of RDN (42 kg N/ha), and 125% of RDN (52.5 kg N/ha). At every stage of the crop's growth, the leaf area index (LAI) with 125% of RDN was the highest and much better than that with 75% and 100% of RDN. Throughout the crop's growth stages, the spacing of 55 cm x 20 cm generated the least amount of dry matter. At a 45 cm X 15 cm spacing, the highest grain weight of 30.33 g was attained, which was comparable to the remaining plant spacing. At 55 cm X 20 cm, the lowest grain yield (52.76 q/ha-1) was observed. With respect to nitrogen, highest harvest index (34.74%) was associated with application of 75% of RDN which was significantly superior over 100% of RDN With respect to plant spacing significantly highest harvest index (36.64%) was recorded at 45 cm X 15 cm and lowest harvest index (31.98%) was recorded with 65 cm X 25 cm and it was on par with 55 X 20 cm (33.24 %). With regard to plant spacing, higher soil available nitrogen and phosphorous was recorded at spacing of 65 cm X 25 cm, higher available potassium at spacing of 45 cm X 15 cm.

Dynamic Modeling of Soil Water Dynamics and Nitrogen Species Transport with Multi-Crop Rotations Under Variable-Saturated Conditions

Excessive application of nitrogen (N) fertilizers in agriculture poses significant environmental risks, notably nitrate leaching into groundwater. This study evaluates soil water dynamics and the transport of urea, ammonium, and nitrate under variable-saturated conditions in a long-term experimental field in Croatia, Europe. Utilizing HYDRUS-1D and HYDRUS-2D models, we simulated water flow and nitrogen transformation and transport across six lysimeter-monitored locations over four years (2019–2023), incorporating diverse crop rotations and N addition. Key modeled processes included nitrification, urea hydrolysis, and nitrate leaching, integrating field-measured parameters and climatic conditions. The models achieved high reliability, with R2 values for water flow ranging from 0.58 to 0.97 and for nitrate transport from 0.13 to 0.97; however, some cases reported lower reliability. Results revealed that nitrate leaching was influenced by precipitation patterns, soil moisture, crop growth stages, and fertilization timing. Peak nitrate losses were observed during early crop growth and post-harvest periods when elevated soil moisture and reduced plant uptake coincided. The findings highlight the importance of optimizing nitrogen application strategies to balance crop productivity and environmental protection. This research demonstrates the effectiveness of numerical modeling as a tool for sustainable nitrogen management and groundwater quality preservation in agricultural systems. It also indicates the need for further development by capturing some of the processes such as identification in the N cycle.

Light Controls in the Regulation of Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Leafy Vegetables: A Review

Leafy vegetables are excellent dietary sources of carotenoids, offering various nutritional benefits to human health. With the growing interest in health, the enhancement of functional compounds in crops through environmental control is emerging as an important topic in the field of agricultural research. Light serves as a major environmental signal regulating carotenoid levels. Light-activated photoreceptor proteins initiate intracellular signaling pathways that regulate carotenoid metabolism in response to environmental changes. Recent studies have shown that blue and ultraviolet (UV) light wavelengths are particularly effective in accumulation of foliar carotenoids, as they trigger photo-oxidative stress while activating defense mechanisms to mitigate it. Light intensity and exposure time, as quantitative aspects of light, are also involved in carotenoid biosynthesis in a similar manner. However, although previous studies provide valuable insights into light-mediated carotenoid accumulation, the interplay of light parameters (e.g., spectrum, intensity, exposure) with crop species and growth stages remains unclear due to the lack of well-organized data. In this review, we summarize recent advanced information about light-mediated carotenoid biosynthesis in leafy vegetables and highlight an integrated experimental approach to explore optimal light conditions for maximizing carotenoid accumulation in commercial production systems.

Variation in Mustard Aphid (Lipaphis erysimi) Infestation and Resistance Levels Across Diverse Rapeseed-Mustard Genotypes

The present study evaluated 89 rapeseed-mustard genotypes for their resistance against mustard aphid during the Rabi season of 2023–24 at CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana to understand the role of phenological and genotypic variations influencing aphid resistance. Screening targeted three key crop stages: aphid appearance, full flowering, and siliqua formation to measure aphid infestation levels using standardized indices. Aphid infestation was consistently higher in B. juncea (7.81 aphids/10 cm twig) compared to B. napus (1.88 aphids) during early stages of crop growth. At the aphid appearance stage, 60 genotypes were resistant (ARI = 1), 28 moderately resistant (ARI 1–2), and one tolerant. During the full flowering stage, resistant genotypes number declined slightly to 54 while, 32 remained moderately resistant. At full flowering, infestation in Brassica juncea (17.08 aphids/10 cm twig) remained higher than in B. napus (1.88 aphids/10 cm twig). The full siliqua formation stage saw higher aphid infestations, with four genotypes categorized as susceptible and eight as tolerant. However, by the full siliqua formation stage, the infestation levels between the B. juncea and B. napus (30.12 and 27.63 aphids) were nearly equal, indicating either a convergence in susceptibility at later crop stages or some sort of developmental asynchrony. The differential response of B. napus and B. juncea genotypes across crop growth stages, points to potential avenues for breeding programs to improve resistance in rapeseed-mustard crops.

Efficient and rapid identification of tropical maize inbred lines tolerant to waterlogging stress

Waterlogging (WL) is an important abiotic stress, severely affecting plant growth and development, inhibiting root respiration and degradation of chlorophyll, senescence of leaves and chlorosis leading to substantial yield loss. These intensities of yield losses generally depend on the duration of WL and crop growth stages. Maize being a dry land crop is particularly sensitive to WL. Systematic screening techniques to identify parameters linked with tolerance are not well established which serves as a major bottleneck in the identification of promising genotypes. In this study, 120 maize inbred lines belonging to diverse genetic backgrounds were evaluated for WL tolerance both at pre-emergence as well as the seedling stage. Results based on percentage germination at pre-emergence and percentage survival at the seedling stage under WL established that pre-germination tolerance is independent of seedling stage tolerance. Membership function value based on WL tolerance coefficient of shoot and root fresh weights, dry weights, lengths, root surface area, shoot area and root volume was used to identify tolerant lines. Established mathematical models were used and identified root dry weight as a single reliable parameter to judge the tolerance level of genotypes. The use of BLPSI and ESIM selection indices as well as MTSI to judge the stability as well as genetic worth of genotypes further strengthens the selection efficiency. Lines thus performing best across all the models included I 185, I 172 and SE 503 and were identified as tolerant lines for WL. A combination of these different selection approaches would further strengthen selection efficiency and is believed to be a rapid and effective selection approach.

The rhizosphere bacteriome is modified by wheat genotype and growth stage under increased imidazolinone herbicide residues

Abstract When imidazolinone herbicides persist longer than intended and remain active in the soil, they can have unknown impacts on soil health. This study investigated the impact of simulated soil residues of an imidazolinone herbicide on shoot dry matter and bacterial communities in the bulk and rhizosphere soil in tolerant and susceptible wheat genotypes, at two different crop growth stages. Four levels of gradient increased herbicide residues were applied, and rhizosphere bacterial diversity and community composition were analysed using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Our results highlight that the shift in wheat rhizosphere bacteriome is driven more by the crop growth stage and wheat genotype than the presence and level of imidazolinone residues. Results showed a linear trend of increasing alpha diversity with increasing herbicide residues during the early crop growth stage, and a decrease in alpha diversity with increasing herbicide residues during the late crop growth stage, only for the tolerant genotype. The order Betaproteobacteriales in the rhizosphere was increased by herbicide residues to a greater extent than the other taxonomic groups. During the early growth stage, there were more ASV (amplicon sequence variant) enriched by imidazolinone herbicide residues in the rhizosphere of the tolerant genotype compared with the susceptible genotype. Future research work should consider studies with soils that have different physicochemical properties, and focus on other soil microbes of known significance to nutrient cycling and crop growth.

Adaptive Month Matching: A Phenological Alignment Method for Transfer Learning in Cropland Segmentation

The increasing demand for food and rapid population growth have made advanced crop monitoring essential for sustainable agriculture. Deep learning models leveraging multispectral satellite imagery, like Sentinel-2, provide valuable solutions. However, transferring these models to diverse regions is challenging due to phenological differences in crop growth stages between training and target areas. This study proposes the Adaptive Month Matching (AMM) method to align the phenological stages of crops between training and target areas for enhanced transfer learning in cropland segmentation. In the AMM method, an optimal Sentinel-2 monthly time series is identified in the training area based on deep learning model performance for major crops common to both areas. A month-matching process then selects the optimal Sentinel-2 time series for the target area by aligning the phenological stages between the training and target areas. In this study, the training area covered part of the Mississippi River Delta, while the target areas included diverse regions across the US and Canada. The evaluation focused on major crops, including corn, soybeans, rice, and double-cropped winter wheat/soybeans. The trained deep learning model was transferred to the target areas, and accuracy metrics were compared across different time series chosen by various phenological alignment methods. The AMM method consistently demonstrated strong performance, particularly in transferring to rice-growing regions, achieving an overall accuracy of 98%. It often matched or exceeded other phenological matching techniques in corn segmentation, with an average overall accuracy across all target areas exceeding 79% for cropland segmentation.

Enhancing Paddy Yields with Advanced Nitrogen Fertilizers: A Study of Neem-coated Urea, Agrotain Urea and Nano Nitrogen

Aims: To evaluate and compare the performance of nano nitrogen, agrotain urea, and neem-coated urea in improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), crop yield, and sustainability in kharif (Vanakalam) and rabi (Yasangi) rice crops in the Southern Telangana Zone of India. Study Design: A field experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with 11 treatments and three replications to assess the effects of various nitrogen sources and application on rice productivity. Place and Duration of Study: The field study was planned from 2021 to 2023 at Institute of Soil Health Management, Agricultural Research Institute, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, from 2021 to 2023. Methodology: The experiment included treatments with varying nitrogen levels applied through nano nitrogen, agrotain urea, and neem-coated urea, including 100% Recommended Dose of Nitrogen (RDN), STCR (Soil Test Crop Response) based nitrogen, and reduced nitrogen doses (50% and 33% RDN). Dry matter yield at tillering, panicle initiation and harvest stages, grain and straw yield were measured at key growth stages (tillering, panicle initiation, and harvest) of rice crop. Results: In the kharif season, the highest dry matter yield at panicle initiation was recorded with 100% RDN using STCR based neem coated urea (7007 kg ha⁻¹), followed by agrotain urea (6199 kg ha⁻¹) and Neem coated urea (6019 kg ha⁻¹). Nano-ntrogen sprays with reduced nitrogen doses (50% and 33% RDN) showed significantly lower yields, with 50% RDN-STCR-based NCU yielding 5826 kg ha⁻¹ and 33% RDN-STCR-based NCU yielding 4899 kg ha⁻¹. In the rabi season, grain yields were highest with 100% RDN from STCR based N-NCU (7382 kg ha⁻¹), Agrotain urea (6741 kg ha⁻¹) and NCU (6561 kg ha⁻¹), while reduced nitrogen doses resulted in lower yields, ranging from 5886 kg ha⁻¹ (50% RDN) to 5142 kg ha⁻¹ (33% RDN) with STCR based N-NCU. Straw yield during kharif was highest with 100% RDN treatments (6540–7422 kg ha⁻¹), with reduced nitrogen doses and Nano-N sprays resulting in lower yields. The system straw yield showed the highest values with 100% RDN-STCR-based NCU (16277 kg ha⁻¹), followed by agrotain urea (14888 kg ha⁻¹) and NCU (14284 kg ha⁻¹). Nano-N sprays alone produced a system straw yield of 8119 kg ha⁻¹, higher than the control (7732 kg ha⁻¹), but significantly lower than 100% nitrogen treatments. Conclusion: Full nitrogen applications (100% RDN) through innovative fertilizers like agrotain urea, and neem coated urea resulted in significantly higher crop yields and nutrient uptake compared to reduced nitrogen doses. The study highlights the critical role of adequate nitrogen in improving nitrogen use efficiency and sustaining rice production systems, with substantial yield gains observed at 100% RDN (up to 44% for grain yield and 37% for straw yield).

Effect of Foliar Application of Moringa Leaf Extract on Biomass Production and Nutrient Content of Maize

The spray of moringa (Moringa oleifera) leaf extract is crucial for the biomass output and nutrient content of maize. The current study was conducted in 2021–2022 in green house Department of Soil Science, Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam. The objective of the experiment was to evaluate the impact of foliar application of moringa leaf extract on maize nutritional content and biomass production. Five distinct treatments, each with three repeats, were placed in 15 pots, each pot was filled with 5 kgs of soil, and an experimental trial was conducted using a Complete Randomized Design (CRD). Moringa Leaf Extract was applied as foliar spray after 2, 4, and 6 weeks of plant emergence. The results reveal that the plant growth parameters i.e., shoot length (19.55cm), shoot fresh weight (13.22g plant-1), shoot dry weight (7.00 g plant-1), leaf fresh weight (3.6 g) and No. of leaves plant-1 (7.33), tap root length (54.00 cm) and tap root fresh weight (2.89 g plant-1), tap root dry weight (1.73 g) significantly increased in all treated pots. The leaf tissues of maize plant were also assessed for their nutrient content i.e., Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. The results indicate that the maize plant was affected by three different treatments of moringa leaf extract applied at various crop growth stages. Maximum nitrogen content was found in maize leaf (4.79%) where the crop was sprayed thrice, whereas maximum phosphorus and potassium content was observed (0.72%) and (3.44%) respectively. It is concluded from the study that the biomass production and nutrient content of maize crop were significantly affected by treatment five where foliar spray of moringa leaf extract was applied after 2, 4 and 6 weeks of plant emergence, this indicates that moringa leaf extract spray performed better for most of the investigated traits. We recommend further research to confirm these outcomes.

Precision Nutrient and Soil Tillage Management for Sustainable Winter Barley Production (Hordeum vulgare L.) and Tillage Impact on Soil CO2 Emission

Precision sustainable agronomic practices are crucial for achieving global food security as well as mitigating climate change. A field experiment was conducted at the Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences in Gödöllő from 2023 to 2024. The study aimed to evaluate the effects of soil tillage and foliar nutrient supplementation on winter barley yield, associated characteristics, and soil CO2 emissions. Employing a split-plot design with three replications, the experiment included four nutrient treatments (control, bio-cereal, bio-algae, and MgSMnZn blend) and two soil tillage type (i.e., plowing and cultivator). The study found that soil CO2 emissions were influenced by the crop growth stage across both tillage treatments throughout the growing seasons, but the tillage system itself did not have an effect. Similarly, the leaf chlorophyll content was not affected by tillage and nutrient treatments. Plant height, the leaf area index (LAI), and thousand kernel weights (TKW) were significantly affected by nutrient treatments across the growing seasons. Both nutrient and tillage treatments also had a notable effect on the number of productive tillers in winter barley. Moreover, nutrient and tillage treatments consistently influenced grain yield across the two growing seasons, and their interaction significantly impacted both grain yield and thousand kernel weights. The bio-cereal nutrient treatment combined with plowing tillage yielded the highest values for most parameters throughout the growing seasons. Therefore, it can be concluded that the combination of bio-cereal nutrient treatments and plowing tillage can boost winter barley yields. Notably, soil CO2 emissions peak during the crops’ reproductive stage, surpassing levels from early growth.

Environmental and management determinants of blackleg crown canker disease (Leptosphaeria maculans) of canola (Brassica napus)

AbstractBlackleg disease (Leptosphaeria maculans) impacts canola (Brassica napus) productivity worldwide, but the factors driving severity are not well defined. This study characterised blackleg disease progression from leaf lesion appearance to crown canker development. Leaf lesion severity at four crop growth stages and crown canker severity were empirically associated in crops planted at different times. The biotrophic growth rate of L. maculans in planta was determined at temperatures between 12 and 28 °C. Data from 24 Australian field experiments on spring B. napus cultivars were analysed to relate infection timing relative to crop growth stage and site conditions to crown canker severity at maturity. Despite variations in lesions across seasons and planting times, no significant relationship was found between lesion severity or incidence and crown canker severity. Crown canker severity increased significantly when younger plants were infected. The average in planta hyphal growth rate of L. maculans was 0.13 mm/°C-day. The analyses of biotrophic hyphal growth alongside the timing of infection were used to identify the onset of crown canker development. Simulations showed that thermal time and plant available water accounted for 61% and 36% of the variance in crown canker severity for moderately susceptible and moderately resistant genotypes, respectively. Blackleg crown canker severity is a nuanced interplay between time of infection relative to crop growth stage, genetic resistance, temperature, and moisture. Disease-crop models incorporating these factors could be used to explore how, for example, sowing time, level of host genetic resistance or extreme weather conditions affect disease infection and crop yield.

Energy-Efficient Wireless Multimedia Sensor Nodes for Plant Proximal Monitoring.

The paper presents a double-radio wireless multimedia sensor node (WMSN) with a camera on board, designed for plant proximal monitoring. Camera sensor nodes represent an effective solution to monitor the crop at the leaf or fruit scale, with details that cannot be retrieved with the same precision through satellites or unnamed aerial vehicles (UAVs). From the technological point of view, WMSNs are characterized by very different requirements, compared to standard wireless sensor nodes; in particular, the network data rate results in higher energy consumption and incompatibility with the usage of battery-powered devices. Avoiding energy harvesters allows for device miniaturization and, consequently, application flexibility, even for small plants. To do this, the proposed node has been implemented with two radios, with different roles. A GPRS modem has been exclusively implemented for image transmission, while all other tasks, including node monitoring and camera control, are performed by a LoRaWAN class A end-node that connects every 10 min. Via the LoRaWAN downlink, it is possible to efficiently control the camera settings; the shooting times and periodicity, according to weather conditions; the eventual farming operations; the crop growth stages and the season. The node energy consumption has been verified in the laboratory and in the field, showing that it is possible to acquire one picture per day for more than eight months without any energy harvester, opening up further possible implementations for disease detection and production optimization.

Nutrient Uptake of the Individual Crops in Maize and Groundnut Cropping System Grown under Different Irrigation Systems with Varied Irrigation and Nitrogen Levels

An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of irrigation systems, irrigation and N levels on nutrient uptake of rabi maize and summer groundnut during 2021-22 and 2022-23 at the College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, PJTAU, Hyderabad. The experiment composed of 18 treatment combinations (3 irrigation systems as main plot, 3 irrigation levels as sub-plot and 2 nitrogen levels as sub-sub-plot) in a split plot design replicated thrice. The study revealed that irrigation systems, irrigation and N levels and the interaction of irrigation systems and irrigation levels influenced the nutrient uptake of maize and groundnut crops during both the years of experimentation. Significantly higher NPK uptake was observed with sub-surface drip irrigation (M2), irrigation level at 1.2 Epan;IW/CPE (S1) and N level at 100 per cent RDN (N1). The interaction of irrigation systems and irrigation levels (M x S) was significant while the interaction of N levels with irrigation systems (M x N) and irrigation levels (N x S) was not significant for both rabi maize and summer groundnut. The interaction of irrigation systems and irrigation levels revealed that in both maize and groundnut crops at earlier crop growth period the M3S1 (surface irrigation with 1.2 IW/CPE) resulted in significantly higher NPK uptake followed by M2S1 and M2S2 (sub-surface drip irrigation with 1.2 and 0.9 Epan). However at later crop growth stages due to prolonged fertigation schedules in micro irrigation systems, the higher NPK uptake was observed with M2S1 and M2S2 followed by surface drip irrigation system with 1.2 Epan (M1S1) and surface irrigation system with 1.2 IW/CPE (M3S1) while M3S3 resulted in lowest NPK uptake at all crop stages and in grains & stover/haulm during both the consecutive years (2021-22 and 2022-23).

Physiological impact of water deficit during growth stages of the wheat crop

Physiological impact of water deficit during growth stages of the wheat crop

The Effect of Spray Regimes on the Population Dynamics of Selected Field Pests and Their Effect on Grain Yield and Yield Components of Common Bean in Uganda.

In Uganda, the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is often infested by a complex of insect pests, but bean flies, aphids, bean leaf beetles, and flower thrips are the most important. Whereas yield losses due to these pests have been established, there is limited information on their population dynamics at different stages of crop growth and their effect on yield and yield components. In order to describe the population dynamics of selected common bean pests at various phases of bean crop growth, and their impact on yield and yield components, a study was carried out in Uganda during the 2016 second rains and the 2017 first rains in three agro-ecological zones. Bean flies, bean aphids, bean leaf beetles, whitefly, striped bean weevil, leafhoppers, and caterpillars were the main insects observed. Pesticide spray schedules were imposed to generate different populations of insect pests whose effects on yield and its components were determined. The findings indicate that spray regimes significantly influenced the abundance of bean flies and leafhoppers, but not the other insect pests. Additionally, except for caterpillars, insect pests were significantly influenced by crop growth stages, but only leafhoppers exhibited a significant negative relationship with grain yield. Furthermore, yield and yield components varied significantly between spray regimes, and there was a significant positive relationship between grain yield and yield components. Our study is important for informing growers on the stage of crop growth at which management tactics such as use of insecticides can be applied for different insect pests.

Development of multistage crop yield estimation model using machine learning and deep learning techniques.

In this research paper, machine learning techniques were applied to a multivariate meteorological time series data for estimating the wheat yield of five districts of Punjab. Wheat yield data and weather parameters over 34years were collected from the study area and the model was developed using stepwise multi-linear regression (SMLR), artificial neural network (ANN), support vector regression (SVR), random forest (RF) and deep neural network (DNN) techniques. Wheat yield estimation was done at the tillering, flowering, and grain-filling stage of the crop by considering weather variables from 46 to 4th, 46 to 8th, and 46 to 11th standard meteorological week. Weighted and unweighted Meteorological variables and yield data were used to train, test, and validate the models in R software. The evaluation results showed a consistent and promising performance of RF, SVR, and DNN models for all five districts with an overall MAPE and nRMSE value of less than 6% during validation at all three growth stages. These models exhibited outstanding performance during validation for the Faridkot, Ferozpur, and Gurdaspur districts. Based on accuracy parameters MAPE, RMSE, nRMSE, and percentage deviation, the RF model was found better followed by SVR and DNN models and, hence can be used for district-level wheat crop yield estimation at different crop growth stages.

Survey and Monitoring of Onion Thrips (Thrips tabaci) Lindeman

Thrips is a most important global pest of onion crop they are direct impact of onion yield and quality. The nymph and adult of thrips feed on leaves by piercing and rasping the leaf tissues and causes lengthwise, silvery stippling or blotching on the onion leaves, resulting in the loss of chlorophyll and reduced photosynthetic efficiency. Thrips attack onion at all the stages of crop growth stages but their count increases from bulb initiation and remains high up to bulb development and maturity. Onion thrips can also transmit several plant pathogens in onion crop that reduced onion bulb size and quality. The above surveys objective to evaluate the damage percentage of thrips in onion crops. Survey was conducted during Kharif 2022 and Rabi 2022-23. The maximum thrips damage rating scale of 3(45%) was recorded at 75 DAT in the Kharif season and Rabi season at 75 DAT thrips damage rating scale was recorded at 4 (65%).The survey result show that the thrips population and damage percentage increased due to increased temperature and relative humidity.

Effect of stage‐wise deficit irrigation on crop water productivity of different varieties of teff (Eragrostis tef)

AbstractThe increasing demand for water for various purposes is causing the availability of water for irrigation to decrease daily. Consequently, it is necessary to implement deficit irrigation. Research on the different teff crop varieties and the level of deficit irrigation with crop growth stages at semi‐arid agroecological zones remains inadequate. Therefore, the objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of stage‐wise deficit irrigation and crop variety on crop water productivity for the teff crop. Two varieties of teff and three irrigation levels were selected and applied for each growth stage. Crop water productivity was determined by using crop water consumed with their yield production and analyzed using Statistix 10.0 software. The results showed that crop varieties had a significant effect on crop water productivity. The maximum crop water use efficiency (0.92 kg m−3) and field water use efficiency (1.387 kg m−3) were obtained for a 30% deficit at the ripening growth stage for the Tseday teff variety. Contrarily, the minimum CWUE and FWUE of 0.617 kg m−3 and 0.959 kg m−3 were obtained to 30% deficit irrigation at the yield formation growth stage of the Quncho teff variety. Therefore, deficit irrigation during the yield formation growth stage was not recommended, but it was possible to apply deficit irrigation during the ripening growth stage to improve crop water productivity in areas of water scarcity.

Influence of tillage, residue and nitrogen placement on maize growth and yield under conservation agriculture

Conservation agriculture (CA) is changing the paradigm in production and productivity of maize-wheat system, but proper residue management and quantification, and application of nitrogen (N) are the main bottlenecks. In this context a field experiment was conducted in split plot design consisting of three crop establishment practices (CEPs) in main plots i.e., ZT with residue retention (ZT + R), zero tillage (ZT), conventional tillage (CT) and 4 N placement methods (NPMs) i.e., Control (only P and K applied), RDN: Recommended Dose of N (Band placement of 1/3rd N at sowing followed by surface placement of 1/3rd N during each at V6 (emerged six leaves with the complete collar visible) and tasselling stage, improved RDN (band placement of 1/3rd N as basal dose followed by 1/3rd nitrogen as subsurface placement at V6 stage followed by 1/3rd nitrogen as surface band placement at tasselling stage) and improved 80 % RDN (Band placement of 30 % N as basal followed by subsurface placement of 30 % N in maize (at V6 stage) and surface band placement of 20 % N in maize (at tasselling stage). The ZT + R treatment resulted in significantly higher plant height (6.61-7.02 %) and dry matter accumulation (DMA) (7.50-7.73 %) during different crop growth stages in maize compared to CT. The NPM involving subsurface placement of N at the V6 stage, that is, improved RDN, significantly increased plant height (2.37-2.73 %) and DMA (1.85-4.13 %) as compared to RDN during different crop growth stages. Significantly higher NDVI and lower CTD values were reported under ZT+R across crop growth stages over the years. ZT + R in combination with improved RDN resulted in significantly higher stover and biological yield by 10.40 and 10.10 %, respectively, as compared to CT with RDN. The improved 80 % RDN saved 20 % N to achieve the same level of productivity as the RDN, emphasising the role of the subsurface placement of nitrogen. Therefore, residue retention in ZT with improved RDN can enhance maize productivity in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and similar agro-ecologies. This research contributes to bridging the gap in nitrogen management under conservation agriculture.

Effect of Nitrogen Management and Silicon Fertilization on Crops

Nitrogen management has a substantial impact on crop growth stages and yields. Split nitrogen administration at specific growth stages improves nutrient utilization, reduce losses and increase yield. Several studies have shown that applying nitrogen in fractions throughout the life cycle improves nutrient uptake efficiency while minimizing environmental contamination. Proper judicious nitrogen application impacts soil properties by affecting nutrient availability. Nitrogen management based on the Leaf Color Chart (LCC) is successful in terms of optimizing nitrogen delivery and enhancing yield characteristics. Silicon fertilization has shown encouraging outcomes in terms of plant growth, yield, and stress tolerance across a variety of crops. Silicon also improves the soil features such as nutrient availability and pH regulation, resulting in increased plant nutrient uptake. The interaction effects of silicon with other nutrients show synergistic effects that improve nutrient absorption and yield. Silicon interacts with nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other nutrients, which promotes crop performance and nutrient efficiency. Application of nitrogen and silicon management strategies can boost crop yield, nutrient efficiency, and sustainability in agricultural systems. However, additional research is needed to understand the intricate mechanisms behind the interactions of nitrogen, silicon, and other nutrients in crop-soil systems to develop more effective nutrient management strategies. This review deals with different aspects of nitrogen fertilization in crops and simultaneous silicon application and interaction among both. The aspects of growth parameters, yield attributes, yield, economics, soil characteristics and efficiency studies have been assessed.