Crooked Toes Research Articles

Influence of gait on bone strength in turkeys with leg defects.

Leg problems have become more frequent in fast-growing turkeys. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of common leg defects on kinetic parameters of gait and biomechanical properties of bone. Nine hundred, day-old, male, Large White turkeys were raised in 48 floor pens. At 42 d of age, turkeys were divided into four categories of leg condition as determined by visual evaluation: Normal, Crooked toes, Shaky legs, and Valgus. Fifteen toms were selected from each group and trained to walk on a pressure sensitive walkway. Gait kinetic data were collected at 92, 115 and 144 d of age. At 145 d of age, turkeys were sacrificed and bones were collected and frozen until analysis. Morphological measurements of femur, tibia and tarsus-metatarsus were recorded. Bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC) were obtained using DEXA. Bone strength of tibias was evaluated using a four-point bending test and femurs with a torsion test. ANOVA was used to detect differences among groups, and Tukey's test used for mean separation. There were no differences in BW among different leg conditions. Gait parameters changed as turkeys aged, and age-group interactions were observed on peak vertical force (PVF), contact time, step length (SL) and bipedal cycle. No differences (P > 0.05) were detected in morphological measurements of femur or tibia. Relative asymmetry of femur length was lower (P < 0.05) in Normal and Valgus turkeys than in toms with Crooked toes. There were no differences (P > 0.05) among groups for femur BMD, BMC or strength. Tibia BMD and the area moment of inertia of turkeys with Crooked toes were lower (P < 0.05) than in toms with Valgus. With all four leg conditions, femur strength was positively correlated with PVF and negatively correlated with SL; BMD and BMC were correlated with tibia strength and gait kinetic parameters. In conclusion, only crooked toes caused consistent differences in gait patterns, bone properties and bone strength, but in general, gait kinetics was correlated with bone biomechanics in turkeys.

Pola Pewarisan Kaki Rengket Secara Autosomal Resesif dan Koefisien Inbreeding pada Ayam Pelung di Cianjur (THE AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE IN CROOPER TOES INHERRITANCE PATTERN AND INBREEDING COEFFICIENT IN PELUNG CHICKEN AT CIANJUR)

Pelung Chicken is classified as dual-purpose chicken (meat and singer). Physical abnormalities affectthe selling price. One of the common physical abnormalities is crooked toes. The aims of this study were todeterminate the crooked toes inheritance pattern and the value of inbreeding coefficient (IC) in Pelungchicken. The method that used in this study is descriptive-explorative and samples were taken usingpurposive sampling analysis. The research was conducted at Cibeber, Cianjur district, West Java.inbreeding coeficient was determined using F = “ (1/2)n+1 (1+Fc) formula and inheritance pattern wasdetermined by the pedigree resulted and chi-square test goodness of fit test. The results show that aCreeper abnormality is inherited as autosomal recessive with the IC value reaches 0.6. The highest valueof IC shows highest risk probability of crooked toes in pelung chicken.

Effect of broiler breeder feeding programme and feeder space change at photostimulation using maize- or wheat-based diets on broiler progeny growth performance and leg health

1. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of diet type, maternal feeding programme at 29 weeks of age and breeder feeder space change at photostimulation on broiler progeny performance and leg health at 6 weeks of age.2. Fast-feathering Cobb 500 broiler breeders were fed on either maize- or wheat-based diets that had been formulated to have similar nutrient composition during growing and layer phases. Two feeding programmes, fast or flow, were used from 14 to 29 weeks of age. At 22 weeks, 69 females from each pen were placed in a layer house where feeder space was either similar to that in rearing (6.3 to 6.5 cm/female) or was increased from 6.3 to 8.4 cm/female. Eggs produced at 32 and 44 weeks of age were collected and incubated for two broiler experiments. A total of 16 male and 16 female one-d-old chicks were placed in floor pens in two experiments, respectively, with 6 and 4 replicate pens. Broiler gait scores and leg problem prevalence were evaluated at 6 weeks of age.3. Data were analysed as a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design with diet type, feeding programme and feeder space change as main factors.4. The wheat diet increased the probability of observing crooked toes in broiler progeny compared to the use of maize, but only when breeders were fed according to the fast feeding programme and given similar feeder space as during rearing.5. Breeders given more feeder space in the laying period produced progeny with more locomotion problems compared with those provided similar feeder space, but only when maize was used and the slow feeding programme was applied to the breeders.6. The maternal feeding programme interacted with other factors to influence progeny leg health, but it did not solely influence walking ability or leg problems of progeny.7. In conclusion, an increased probability of observing walking impairment of broiler progeny was detected when breeders were given greater feeder space at photostimulation rather than no change and fed according to the slow feeding programme using maize diets in breeders and progeny.

Twenty-five years of selection for improved leg health in purebred broiler lines and underlying genetic parameters

Leg health is an important component of broiler welfare and the economics of broiler production. This study presents the development of leg health in 3 purebred commercial broiler lines during 25 yr of selection and investigates the genetic background of leg health traits in current populations of these lines. The leg health traits were deformities of the long bones (LD) and crooked toes (CT), recorded since 1985, and tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) and hock burn (HB), recorded since 1990. The prevalence of CT and HB decreased mainly in the first decade (range among lines −1.2 to −2.3% and −1.3 to −1.5% per year, respectively), after which it stabilized at low levels. The prevalence of LD and TD decreased by −0.6 to −0.9% and −0.4 to −1.2% per year, respectively. Genetic parameters were estimated using data from 4 recent generations. The BW ranged from 2.0 to 2.4 kg at 5 wk of age; the prevalences of LD, CT, TD, and HB from 8.6 to 12.9%, 0.6 to 2.6%, 4.6 to 8.0%, and 4.0 to 12.2%, respectively. Estimates of heritability were 0.04 to 0.07 for LD, 0.01 to 0.10 for CT, 0.10 to 0.27 for TD, and 0.06 to 0.09 for HB (all SE ≤0.01). Estimates of the genetic correlations between LD and CT were 0.11 to 0.43 (all SE ≤0.09), between these traits and HB were negligible, and of TD with LD, CT, and HB were −0.26 to 0.16 (all SE ≤0.11). Estimates of genetic correlations between the leg health traits and BW were lowly to moderately unfavorable, ranging from 0.09 to 0.37 (all SE ≤0.06). The differences between the lines suggest that strategies for simultaneous improvement of all traits tailored for each line individually have been effective. This research demonstrates the long-term effectiveness of selection for improving leg health in broilers and highlights that, despite somewhat unfavorable genetic correlations with BW, these traits can be improved simultaneously in a balanced breeding program.

Effect of incubation temperatures and chick transportation conditions on bone development and leg health

SUMMARY Bone development can be adversely affected by stressful environmental conditions early in life. One experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of low temperature during early incubation, high temperature during late incubation, and transportation conditions from hatchery to the farm on the long bone development and leg health of broilers. Bone development was evaluated at hatch before transportation. Gait scores and leg health disorders were recorded at 41 d of age. Although incubation conditions did not affect chick BW, hot temperatures during late incubation reduced the relative weight of femurs and shanks. At 41 d, males had more leg problems than females. Late high temperature and transportation stress increased the incidence of crooked toes and the percentage of chickens with a gait score of 2. Transportation stress, including elevated temperature, caused a greater incidence of twisted legs. We concluded that low early incubation temperature, high late incubation temperature, and transportation stress can increase the incidence of leg problems in commercial broilers.

Incubation conditions affect leg health in large, high-yield broilers

SUMMARY Leg problems are observed in every flock of broilers, and they occur more frequently in heavy, fast-growing broilers. Factors such as genetics, growth rate, stressors, nutrition, and lighting programs can contribute to and change the prevalence of these problems in broiler production. Our previous research has shown that elevated incubation temperatures and oxygen concentrations below 21% during the last days of embryo development can negatively affect thyroid hormones, relative asymmetry and normal development of leg bones, and development of other tissues and organs that influence leg health and locomotion in broilers. This project evaluated the effects of incubation profiles on leg health of high-yielding broilers at 8 wk of age under commercial conditions. Eggs from the same breeder flocks were incubated in either single-stage or multistage machines. Hatchlings were placed in paired houses on the same farms, and at 56 d of age, leg health was evaluated. There was variability among farms and hatches: leg problems such as footpad dermatitis were more closely related to farm conditions, whereas valgus and especially hock burns were influenced by incubation conditions within each farm. However, this fieldwork demonstrated that proper incubation conditions improve broiler performance, especially in females (1.2%); may reduce leg health problems such as crooked toes; and may even improve locomotion.

Associations among fluctuating asymmetry, duration of tonic immobility, heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, and one-legged standing, crooked toes, or footpad dermatitis in chickens

The purpose of this study was to analyze the associations among fluctuating asymmetry, duration of tonic immobility, heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, and one-legged standing, crooked toes, or footpad dermatitis in chickens. In experiment 1, cocks (n = 96; 36 wk old) from 11 Spanish breeds and a White Leghorn population that showed one-legged or normal standing were used. There were no significant differences for the relative fluctuating asymmetry, the duration of tonic immobility, and the heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio between both groups of cocks, with mean values of one-legged standing birds being similar to those of normal birds. Thus, this pain-related behavior is not associated with some measures of well-being, fear, and stress. In experiment 2, cocks (n = 106; 36 wk old) from 9 Spanish breeds and the White Leghorn population that showed crooked or normal toes were used. Group effect was not significant for the relative fluctuating asymmetry and duration of tonic immobility. Heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and heterophil number were significantly greater (P < 0.001) in cocks with crooked toes and smaller in cocks with normal toes, with the opposite being true for lymphocyte number. Thus, this leg problem is associated with the stressfulness of birds and does not contribute to their well-being or fear levels. In experiment 3, cocks (n = 68; 36 wk old) from 5 Spanish breeds with or without footpad dermatitis were used. Group effect was significant for the relative asymmetry of toe length (P < 0.05), the relative asymmetry of cocks with footpad dermatitis being larger. Group x breed interaction was significant for the relative asymmetry of wattle length (P < 0.001), with the difference between cocks with footpad dermatitis and normal cocks being significant in one breed. In this breed (Red-Barred Vasca), fluctuating asymmetry of wattle length was significantly greater in cocks with footpad dermatitis, suggesting that this leg problem negatively affects the well-being of cocks.

Association of Twelve Immune-Related Genes with Performance of Three Broiler Lines in Two Different Hygiene Environments

Elite populations of farm animals under genetic selection are often maintained in high hygiene conditions, yet the commercial populations may be raised in, and are expected to perform well in, environments of varied hygiene levels. This presents special challenges to genetically improve those traits for which genotype by environment interactions are important. Twelve immune-related genes were studied for associations with general mortality and other performance traits in 3 elite commercial broiler chicken lines raised in high and low hygiene environments. The genes were toll-like receptor 4, MD-2 (accessory protein of TLR4), interferon-γ, transforming growth factor-β 3, inducible nitric oxide synthase, macrophage migration inhibitory factor, interleukin-2, caspase-1, inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, chicken B-cell marker, and bone morphogenetic protein-7. From a total of 56 identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in 12 genes, 14 SNP that had moderate allelic frequencies in at least 2 of the 3 lines were typed in about 100 progeny-tested sires from each of 3 elite commercial broiler chicken lines using restriction fragment length polymorphism techniques and then used in association analysis. The traits measured on the progeny (total progeny = 145,467) were: mortality from hatching to 14 d and from 14 to 40 d of age, BW at 7 and 40 d of age, feed conversion, ultrasound breast depth, percentage of breast, eviscerated carcass weight, twisted legs or evident tibial dyschondroplasia, x-ray-inspection–based subclinical or incipient development of tibial dyschondroplasia, curly or crooked toes or bowed legs, oxygen content of blood, and female's antibody titer to infectious bursal disease virus at 27 wk. Association analyses were conducted with allele and haplotype substitution effect models using progeny mean data adjusted for fixed and mate effects as sire trait records. Ten of the 12 genes had SNP associations with at least 1 trait. Most detected effects were with mortality and growth traits. Most gene–SNP trait associations varied by genetic line or with environment. These results indicate that associations of candidate genes with important broiler traits can be identified in multiple environments, and they offer a potential for the implementation of marker-assisted selection for traits expressed in the environment in which the commercial broiler needs to perform. The effects of these immune-related candidate genes, however, are complex and affected by genetic background and environment.

The Effects of Continuously or Diurnally Fed Melatonin on Broiler Performance and Health

An experiment was designed to investigate the effects of dietary melatonin (MEL) on me performance and health of broiler chicks. Chicks raised under constant lighting were fed practical broiler diets in mash form containing 0, 20, or 40 ppm MEL from 0 to 3 wk. A fourth treatment (0 ppm MEL: 6 h/d; 20 ppm MEL: 18 h/d) was used to mimic a diurnal light:dark cycle. Commercial broiler grower diets without MEL supplementation were fed from 3 to 6 wk of age. A small dose-related decrease was observed in weight gain (0 to 14 d) and feed consumption (0 to 21 d) due to continuous feeding of MEL. Continuously fed MEL also improved feed efficiency in the first 3 wk vs the control (0 ppm). Growth and feed consumption from 0 to 21 d were not affected by the diurnally fed diet when compared with the control treatment. No effects were found for mortality. However, the incidence of sudden death syndrome (SDS) was numerically less for the diurnal (3.56%) and 40 ppm (3.76%) diets from 0 to 42 d than for the control treatment (5.56%). Skeletal disease was generally unaffected, with the exception of the incidence of crooked toes at 42 d (0 ppm MEL: 8.67% vs diurnal: 4.89%). Dietary MEL fed either continuously or in a diurnal pattern had a minor effect on the performance and health of broiler chickens.

Cataracts and Crooked Toes in Brahma Chickens

In 1991, 69% of the cockerels and 15% of the pullets in an inbred flock of approximately 200 dark and light Brahma chickens had unilateral or bilateral cataracts and crooked toes. Affected chickens were normal at hatching but developed cataracts with or without crooked toes by 6 months of age. The cataracts were initially focal and polar but progressed to be diffuse throughout the lenticular cortex. The crooked toes involved one or more of the second, third, and fourth digits and were due to a medial deviation of the distal aspect of the first phalanx. The cataracts and crooked toes were considered likely due to a hereditary defect, based on the following: the history of flock inbreeding; the lack of historical, clinical, or pathological evidence of avian encephalomyelitis or Marek's disease; the presence of lesions only in Brahma chickens and not in the approximately 200 other chickens on the farm kept under the same management and environmental conditions; the age at which the lesions occurred; and the nature of the lesions.

The Effect of Different Levels of Relative Humidity and Air Movement on Litter Conditions, Ammonia Levels, Growth, and Carcass Quality for Broiler Chickens

An experiment using 4,800 commercial broiler males (Ross × Ross) was conducted in 12 climatic chambers. Three levels of relative humidity (RH) (45, 40 to 80, and 75%) and two levels of internal air circulation (7.7 to 9.9 and 17.8 to 24.5 cm/s), with each level replicated and, therefore, forming a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments, were imposed as the main effects. Broilers were group weighed and feed efficiencies calculated at 14, 28, and 42 days of age. Percentage dry matter of the litter and a subjective evaluation of general litter conditions (moisture and caking) were scored weekly, with the percentage nitrogen and total quantity of litter produced in each chamber measured at the conclusion of the study. Ammonia levels were measured in each chamber every second day. A sample of birds (36) from each chamber was processed at 42 days and scored for litter spots and ammonia bums on the breast and for the incidence and severity of twisted legs, crooked toes, and infected and calloused hocks and foot pads.Mean body weight was significantly greater (32 g) at 42 days of age in birds exposed to 45% RH compared with the two higher regimens of RH. Both the incidence and severity of ammonia burns on the breast and infected foot pads were significantly higher with 75 versus 45% RH. Increases in RH significantly increased caking and litter moisture and reduced the percentage of dry matter and the percentage of nitrogen found in the litter. Ammonia levels were more variable but generally increased with increases in RH. The two levels of air movement within the chambers produced less influence on the environment than RH, although the scores for both litter moisture and caking were significantly lower with increased levels of internal air circulation.

Further studies on diplopodia. V. Diplopodia-3.

Chronologically the third member of the diplopod series of mutants was found in an inbred line of White Leghorn chickens selected for a high incidence of crooked toes. Diplopodia-3 resembled the other diplopod mutants in possessing supernumerary digits on legs and wings, a shortened upper beak and micromelia. Death occurred prior to hatching. Morphological expression of characters was less severe than with sex-linked diplopodia-4 and autosomal diplopodia-2, and approached that of autosomal diplopodia-1 except for weaker expressions on the wings. The mutant autosomal gene dp-3 was not allelic with dp-1. Relation to dp-2 could not be determined since stock carrying this mutation was no longer extant.

Crooked Toes in Turkeys

The condition in turkeys, commonly called crooked toes, is usually characterized by a lateral or medial deviation of either the second, third or fourth digit, and quite frequently more than one digit is involved. One or both feet may be affected.A recent survey of the frequency of crooked toes in commercial flocks of turkeys indicated this condition is widespread, occurring in all of 63 flocks surveyed (Supeene, 1971). Based on the results of this survey, the frequency of crooked toes was believed to be influenced by management with little influence of genetics and nutrition.A survey was made of the frequency of crooked toes in several medium and heavy weight lines maintained in genetic studies. A description of these lines was given by Nestor and Brown (1971). The occurrence of crooked toes in offspring obtained from four weekly hatches in April and May was recorded at 24 weeks of…

Relationship of 2,5-Diamino-4,6-diketopyrimidine, 2,4-Diaminobutyric Acid and a Crude Preparation of β-Cyano-L-Alanine to the Toxicity of Common and Hairy Vetch Seed Fed to Chicks

Two experiments involving the feeding of 2,5-diamino-4,6-diketopyrimidine (DDP), 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DBA), a crude 30% ethanol-soluble preparation representing β-cyano-L-alanine (BCA) prepared from common vetch seed (CVS), a similarly prepared fraction of hairy vetch seed (HVS) and 30% of CVS and HVS per se were conducted with chicks up to 4 weeks of age. Complete mortality occurred with 30% of CVS and a crude fraction (of BCA) equivalent to 90 % of CVS. DBA (1.0%) resulted in considerable incidence of crooked toes as well as some symptoms of odoratism and blindness coupled with some mortality. Levels of DDP (0.15 and 1.0%), DBA (0.3%), 30% of HVS and a fraction equivalent to 90% of HVS had no effect on mortality. Body weights were significantly (P < 0.05) depressed by 30% of CVS (at 13 days), 1.0% of DBA, 30% of HVS and a fraction thereof. The relationship between these various effects is discussed.

Hereditary Crooked Toes in Chickens

The prevalence of a morphological defect known popularly as crooked or curly toes is apparently increasing to a considerable extent in poultry flocks. This is indicated by requests for information regarding the defect, appearing in the popular poultry press. Persons requesting this information are usually interested to know if birds with crooked toes should be used for breeding purposes. Most answers have indicated that it is safe to do so, stating that the defect was caused by a riboflavin deficiency or due to managemental factors such as smooth, slick floors, crowding under hovers, etc.The object of this note is to bring forth evidence that while the two types of crooked toes mentioned above are of undoubted occurrence there is still another type, determined genetically, which is indistingusihable from that due to managemental factors. Figure 1a shows the expression in a relatively mild form while Figure 1b shows a more .