Critical Space Infrastructure Research Articles

Securing SatCom user segment: A study on cybersecurity challenges in view of IRIS2

The advancement in communications technologies and recent geopolitical events highlighted the need for fast and reliable satellite communications infrastructure for military and civil security operations. Starting from the case study of the Viasat cyberattack in February 2022, this paper analyzes the common vulnerabilities of the ground and, in particular, user segments in SatCom infrastructures, focusing on modems security, and proposes some best practices and solutions in the field of risk management to prevent such attacks. Moreover, the research compares the standards and the guidelines used in the United States concerning routers and network security with those in the European Union. Our findings highlight the need for clear and effective standards or certification schemes to cyber-proof the new components of IRIS2, the “Infrastructure for Resilience Interconnectivity and Security by Satellite”, Europe's first multi-orbital satellite constellation. This need becomes more compelling, especially in view of the entry into force of the Network and Information Security Directive or NIS2 Directive. We conclude by discussing future research directions and emerging trends in cyber risk management for the SatCom user segment. This paper aims to provide valuable insights into managing cyber risks in critical space infrastructure and can inform future efforts to improve cybersecurity in view of IRIS2.

Dark cities or cities of light? – sunlight amenity preservation at whole-city scale using a spatio-temporal decision support approach

Public open spaces are fundamentally important for the health and well-being of citizens in densely populated cities. If not carefully planned, high-density urban development can overshadow adjacent open spaces, resulting in poor quality, dark and oppressive winter conditions. Current planning control approaches for protecting light amenity in cities are often limited to simple overshadowing impact diagrams (e.g. shadows cast on the equinox at 9 a.m., 12 p.m. and 3 p.m.). In cities transitioning from low to higher density, comprising more complex urban forms and more extreme seasonal light amenity dynamics, these static approaches are insufficient. This paper outlines the development of a spatio-temporal design decision support system for analysing and protecting the light amenity of public open spaces, applied to a capital city in Australia. The system described has two parts: Firstly, to assess the overshadowing of existing public open spaces and identify those in need of protection (Part A), and secondly to generate planning restrictions to protect designated open spaces from future deprivation of light (Part B). For Part A, we use a graphics processing unit accelerated aggregate-shadow (15 minute increments) calculation applied to a detailed city-wide 3D model generated from billions of points of aerial survey (LiDAR) data. For Part B, we use a reversed solar ray casting approach we call the ‘Subtracto-Sun’ which allows a user to specify a time range (e.g. 9 a.m.–4 p.m.) for multiple days of the year and subsequent generation of 3D maximum building height development envelopes. The output of this system was used by the local government to inform a proposed planning policy amendment for the City of Melbourne. The findings illustrate the potential for urban professionals to use the system to rapidly assess shadow impacts for existing and proposed, contextually accurate, large, complex urban environments with high levels of geometric and temporal details. The presented results are significant in that we develop and apply our spatio-temporal decision-support approach to a local government area, successfully informing planning height restriction decisions to protect daylight amenity of public open spaces in need of protection. Our method for setting development height restrictions allows for higher density to be achieved, while not increasing the overshadowing of critical open space infrastructure during designated times.

Susceptibility & defense of satellite image-trained convolutional networks to backdoor attacks

With growing opportunities and incentives to disrupt critical space infrastructure systems, cybersecurity of data pipelines associated with satellite images is becoming an increasingly important task. Combined with this threat is a growing body of literature focused on data poisoning and backdoor attacks on deep learning models tailored toward image recognition. To date, there is no work exploring backdoor attacks on deep learning models trained on satellite data. In this study, we evaluate the susceptibility of convolutional networks trained on satellite images to a common trigger-based backdoor attack. We first insert the attack into models trained on two satellite datasets and assess the susceptibility of each model to the attack. We then explore the capability of two state-of-the-art countermeasure techniques based on neuron activity to detect and repair the damage inflicted by the attack. Our results show significant and highly varied attack susceptibility ranging from 0 to 100% with strong dependence on the combination of classes targeted and features common in satellite images. Existing defense strategies are shown to be generally ineffective for this style of attack on satellite data. Finally, we introduce a diagnostic approach for the detection of poisoning vulnerability in satellite image-based deep learning approaches.

Need for a Cyber Resilience Framework for Critical Space Infrastructure

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a case for a standardised comprehensive cyber resilience framework for Critical Space Infrastructure (CSI). Based on structure systematic review and meta-analyses, this paper outlines the needs of a risk-based framework. Space assets are fundamental components of critical national infrastructure (CNI), whose destruction significantly impacts many lives. Moreover, today’s digitally connected space infrastructure is exposed to sophisticated and catastrophic cyber-attacks. This paper lays out the research gap to present the need for a comprehensive cyber resilience framework for CSI and future research and collaboration to understand the emergence of a new category of failures related to space-asset-reliance disruption risks.

Switching between worlds apart: Negotiating European space sector cultures through innovation

Abstract With the advent of the so-called New Space Age, promoted by private actors and driven by market logic innovation, the European space sector meets significant challenges over recent years. This article explores the implications of New Space’s emergence for contemporary societies that increasingly rely on space technologies as critical infrastructures. It does so by analyzing conflicting logics of innovation within the sector arising from a clash of Old Space and New Space cultures and associated role identities. To this end, it combines concepts of institutional culture and role identity from science and technology studies and organization studies. Tracing the identity work performed by members of the European space sector through qualitative interviews, it concludes that new demands of market logic innovation are negotiated within a mode of switching between different sector cultures. It concludes that this mode provides opportunities for the responsible future governance of critical space infrastructures.

A predictor analysis framework for surface radiation budget reprocessing using satellite data

Equipped with various types of imagers, lasers and radars, dozens of satellites orbit the earth every day collecting and relaying data for weather and atmospheric analysis, communication and navigation applications and planetary studies. Earth orbiting satellites are part of the critical space infrastructures. NASA's Global Energy and Water Cycle (GEWEX) surface radiation budget (SRB) shortwave algorithm derives long-term datasets from satellite data of the distribution of the sun's energy to the surface and back to space. This paper presents an analysis framework to describe propagation of input parameter variability to output data results in algorithmic computations, and then quantify the variability in the solution sets. The SRB shortwave algorithm and design of experiments (DOE) methods are utilised to determine significant input parameters and interactions. A sensitivity analysis is also conducted to determine the variability in the output data for each dependent variable varying within their range using Monte Carlo simulation.

Theoretical Approaches to the Definition of “Critical Space Infrastructure”

Theoretical Approaches to the Definition of “Critical Space Infrastructure”

Agent-Based Modeling (ABM): Support for Emphasizing the Air Transport Infrastructure Dependence of Space Systems

Critical infrastructure is foundational for the prosperity and quality of life in any society. By definition, its destruction or disruption would cause severe damage and possibly loss of life. Within this understanding, space systems are a new category of critical infrastructure, emerging as an enabler of new applications which are critical within the wider system-of-systems. This paper presents the results of a modeling exercise validating the proof of concept regarding the idea of the global, air-transport-critical infrastructure’s dependence on space systems. By using an open-source application, the authors constructed a complex system made up of 18 airports for which six scenarios were modeled that represent either the exposure to specific space phenomena or the effects of a partial or total critical space infrastructure disruption. Despite the limitations and assumptions made in the building of this model, its results suggest that a significant impact would result from disruptive events, with the potential for cascading disruptions within the system, beyond the system under analysis, and into the wider system-of-systems. Tools such as this model are useful to policy- and decision-makers, not only to protect existing, critical infrastructures, but also to adequately source future risks, vulnerabilities, and threats, and design and build new infrastructures.

The Critical Space Infrastructure and its Importance to Military Operations

Abstract Actual scientific approaches related to critical infrastructure reveal its importance within many of the society’s essential services that are necessary for day-to-day people’s life. Besides other critical infrastructure systems, the emerging development of the space system results in the embedment of it within the critical space infrastructure concept that is based on its description related to the importance of the services provided to population, public or governing institutions, and industry. This paper intends to present the manner in which the space system services influence population’s life and to emphasize the importance of the space infrastructure related to the process of planning and conducting military operations. The reliability and well functioning of the space system from the perspective as a critical infrastructure proves its paramount importance related to essential services provided to the population that results into social well-being. Nowadays, the majority of military operations depend on the development of space infrastructure and its reliability. Moreover, the military space operations are based on satellite control system architectures as well as the interconnected systems on surface and underground systems. From this side, the protection of critical space infrastructure and its resilience level should have a paramount value for all stakeholders that are using the space system services.

Modeling of Electric Fields Inside Spacecraft Dielectrics Using In-Orbit Charging Current Data

Internal charging caused by energetic electrons is a threat to critical space infrastructure such as Europe's Galileo navigation satellites, however, the mechanism involved and its relationship to space weather is still poorly understood. While the electric field developed inside on-board dielectrics is accepted to be of prime importance, it has never been measured in orbit. On the other hand, internal charging currents have now been measured in a GPS-like medium Earth orbit (MEO) over a ten-year period, so we have used these data to model the electric fields of concern. The measured charging currents provide both charge deposition and dose rate inputs to the electric field model, the latter allowing the introduction of radiation-induced conductivity (RIC) to improve realism. As expected we find that RIC is a mitigating factor for the electric fields but they can still become very large, e.g., a 1.0-mm thickness of PEEK under 0.5 mm of Al shielding would be at risk of breakdown almost throughout the mission. We find that RIC tends to reduce sensitivity to space weather perturbations of the environment such as the April 2010 storm event, and hence longer term average fluxes seem to be more important. This seems physically reasonable for the examples studied but we also know that some satellite anomalies do show a correlation with space weather storms and short term (daily) electron fluences and so further work is needed to understand such cases: for example model parameters could be adjusted to see under what circumstances short term variations are more influential. To enable the progressive improvement of such modeling in future we recommend wider deployment of charging current sensors, especially in MEO and geostationary orbits.

Anticipating uncertainty: The security of European critical outer space infrastructures

Terrestrial societies are heavily dependent on Earth-orbiting satellites for the provision of services which many people now take for granted. However, with this dependence comes a need to preserve the transmission of these services whilst faced with a number of risks and dangers, including intentional interference, space debris and radiation emanating from space weather phenomena. The European Union (EU) has identified these services, along with the satellites and networks which provide them to its citizens, as critical infrastructures, indicating the need for their security. The article frames the EU's efforts to secure its critical outer space infrastructures, namely the draft International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities and the Space Situational Awareness programme, through the lens of anticipatory security. The article concludes that both these approaches to outer space security are predicated upon the precautionary acknowledgement of risks or threats and involve mostly preemptive measures alongside some elements of prevention.

The Space Infrastructure Vulnerability Cadastre: Orbital Debris Critical Loads

Orbital debris from over 50 years of human activity in space are threatening the operations of existing and future satellites and the sustainability of high-value satellite orbits. This technical memorandum calls for the development of a cadastre that depicts the vulnerability of critical satellite orbits to accumulating orbital debris. A space infrastructure vulnerability cadastre could serve as a governance tool for use by developers and operators of critical space infrastructures to better communicate the current and future vulnerability of high-value orbits to the accumulation of orbital debris. These high-value orbits are susceptible to “loss” for decades or centuries if generation of orbital debris continues unabated. The concept of environmental critical loads is applied to heavily used orbits as a way to indicate acceptable debris density for satellite operations, and when debris density / risk thresholds approach unacceptable levels that reduce the probability of sustaining spacecraft operations in those orbits.

A 3 Point Action Agenda to Address Cosmic Hazards and Planetary Defense

ABSTRACT The IAASS and the JSSE gives its prime focus to astronaut safety and safe space transport, but one of its important areas of concern is that of cosmic hazards and planetary. This is a significant area because strategies for planetary defense could involve the safety of millions if not billions of people. This article addresses the latest information as to the nature of significant areas of cosmic risks, gaps in our knowledge, and an agenda for research to further planetary in future years. U.K. Royal Astronomer, Sir Martin Rees has noted: “Throughout its history, the Earth has been impacted by asteroids and comets and buffeted by solar flares. But the consequences of these natural phenomena are more catastrophic today, because the infrastructure on which our civilization depends is more elaborate and more vulnerable… …we have instruments, both on the ground and in space, that can give us forewarning of threatening flares and impacts. We are learning how to make our systems more robust and resilient. Moreover, we will not remain helpless in the face of these threats because we are empowered by advancing technology and engineering.” (Rees) But despite this quite hopeful statement by the U.K. Royal Astronomer, the truth is that there are many severe planetary risks ahead. Current space agency agendas, space instrumentation, changes to the earth’s magnetosphere, and research programs are, in fact, not fully responsive to the needs of a truly effective planetary defense. (Pelton and Allahdadi) This article sets forth some of the greatest lacks in current space programs and notes new or revised efforts that could better prepare our small six sextillion metric ton planet from cosmic dangers. Currently there are several cosmic concerns. These include asteroid and comet strikes from Near Earth Objects, solar flares and coronal mass ejections, and the build-up of orbital space debris that could endanger the safe launch of critical space infrastructure over the longer term future. This article focuses on potentially hazardous comets and asteroids and severe solar storms.

ESA Soon to Unveil Space Weather Services

ESA Soon to Unveil Space Weather Services