Mapping Of Critical Loads Research Articles

High-resolution maps of critical loads for sulfur and nitrogen in China

The critical load concept is an important scientific guideline for acid deposition control. It was not only a crucial scientific basis to determine the emission reduction targets in Europe, but also used in China’s air pollution control, especially the designation of two control zones. Currently, critical loads of sulfur and nitrogen are still exceeded in Europe, America, and East Asia (mainly in China), and need to be continuously updated to meet the demands of further emission reductions. Critical loads of China were calculated and mapped in the 2000s, but are not sufficiently accurate due to methodological and data limitations. Here we present the latest high-quality critical loads for China, based on high-resolution basic data on soil, vegetation, and atmospheric base cations deposition, and up-to-date knowledge on important parameters. Our data, which is going to be included in GAINS-China, can be used to assess the ecological benefits of nitrogen and sulfur reductions in China at a regional or national scale, and to develop mitigation strategies in the future.

Assessing critical loads and exceedances for acidification and eutrophication in the forests of East and Southeast Asia: A comparison with EANET monitoring data

Spatial variations in sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N) deposition have changed in East and Southeast Asia in recent decades. Nevertheless, in this region, including the tropics, regional-scale assessments of the long-term risk of acidification and eutrophication (N saturation) for terrestrial ecosystems using a critical load approach have not been updated since 2001. To evaluate future risks, maps of critical loads and exceedances were updated using recently acquired spatial datasets of soil properties, soil minerals, climate, tree plantations, and the annual S and N depositions estimated using the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model. The resulting maps were verified using data on long-term trends in soil pH and nitrate concentration in surface water acquired by the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia (EANET). It was found that N deposition exceeded the critical load for eutrophication not only in East Asia but also in some parts of the tropical monsoon and humid regions in Southeast Asia, whereas S deposition partly exceeded the critical load for soil acidification in China and small parts of the tropical monsoon region. The high-risk areas for eutrophication coincided well with the EANET sites, where the increase in nitrate concentration in the surface water was significant over the last 20 years. Hence, the estimated map of the critical load exceedance for eutrophication is more plausible for assessing the risk in East and Southeast Asia than that for acidification, although the critical load exceedance for acidification would be sufficiently significant as an updated risk map based on the latest input values. This update also suggests that increased N deposition around megacities, water discharge, and tree plantations may play an important role in the spatial variability of eutrophication risks in the tropics of Southeast Asia.

Benefit of China’s reduction in nitrogen oxides emission to natural ecosystems in East Asia with respect to critical load exceedance

The emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in China decreased by 15% from 2010 to 2015 (without a significant decrease in NH3 emission), resulting in the decline of nitrogen (N) deposition in East Asia. Empirical N critical load exceedance was used to assess the benefit of the NOx emission reduction in China to natural ecosystems in East Asia. Empirical N critical loads for major forest and grassland types in East Asia were assigned based on field manipulation experiments for N effects. The critical load map based on the minimum of the critical load range of each vegetation type showed that empirical critical loads were generally lower in the Tibetan Plateau and some parts of northeastern China (≤5 kgN·ha−1·a−1), and higher in northern and southern China (≥20 kgN·ha−1·a−1). Empirical critical loads were also low in some parts of central and northern Japan (≤5 kgN·ha−1·a−1) and the south Korean Peninsula (5–10 kgN·ha−1·a−1). As a benefit of NOx emission reduction in China, N deposition in East Asia decreased significantly from 2010 to 2015. The total area and total amount of critical load exceedance in East Asia declined 4.6% and 14.3% respectively, suggesting great benefits to natural ecosystems.

Modeling and mapping of critical loads for heavy metals in Kunshan soil

The assessment of critical loads of metals in soil can be used as an important tool for evaluation and for risk precaution of future inputs of metal in order to avoid the occurrence of heavy metal pollution and its long-term risks for people. In this study, critical loads of Cd, Cu, and Pb in farming and non-farming areas of Kunshan were calculated based on three main effects. Two of these effects, limit value of daily metals dose and different environmental water quality criteria are new ways to calculate the critical content of heavy metals. The mean value of critical loads decreased in the order Cu>Pb>Cd when calculated using mass balance effects, child health risk effects, and adult health risk effects. Critical loads were highest in the areas near construction land, areas of low critical load were scattered throughout the city. The areal proportion of critical load exceedance is greatest for Pb based on mass balance effects, followed by Cu based on water quality effects, and Cd based on mass balance effects. Exceedances only occurred in 6% and 3% of farming areas for water quality effects for Cd and Pb when compared critical load values to the input fluxes in the Yangtze River delta. However, for these metals, values were up to 83% and 100%, respectively, based on mass balance effects. Exceedances completely covered non-farming areas for each effect for Pb. Most exceedances occurred in the north and south of the city in non-farming areas. Spatially explicit critical loads of heavy metals based on the different effects can serve as a reference for controlling the emissions of heavy metals effectively and meeting the demands of different management objectives.

FOCUS: A pilot study for national-scale critical loads development in the United States

Abstract The development and use of critical loads of air pollutant deposition in the U.S. is gaining momentum, and recent research efforts in the U.S. have produced valuable data for calculating critical loads. Critical loads are used to quantify the levels of air pollutants that are expected to impact forest health, soil fertility, aquatic biota condition, and other ecosystem responses. In addition, model refinements for improving critical loads estimates, and maps for illustrating critical loads for acidification and nitrogen saturation and eutrophication resulting from excess nutrient nitrogen, have been developed at various scales. However, prior to the effort described here, no cohesive process existed to provide a national-scale critical loads database and maps as a unified product representing all U.S. ecosystems. The FOCUS (Focal Center Utility Study) Project was initiated to coordinate the development and implementation of a clear, consistent, repeatable process for calculating and mapping critical loads within the U.S. In the FOCUS Phase I Pilot Study, empirical and calculated critical loads data for the U.S. were synthesized from dozens of regional and national-scale monitoring networks, research projects and publically available databases following an approach similar to that used in Europe. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), through its International Cooperative Programme on Modelling and Mapping of Critical Levels & Loads and Air Pollution Effects, Risks and Trends (ICP-M&M) collects, analyzes and maps critical loads data. Countries participating in the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) use a Critical Loads “Focal Center” in each country to serve as the point of contact for submitting regional and national-scale critical loads data to the ICP-M&M. One of the purposes of this study was to develop a foundation for interacting with other Focal Centers by assembling critical loads data, creating a database, establishing modeling protocols, and developing infrastructure within the U.S to report and update critical loads on a national scale. Because the U.S. does not currently have an officially designated Focal Center, critical loads data were provided as an informal, unofficial submission to the Coordination Center for Effects (CCE) of the ICP-M&M in March 2011, in the interest of international cooperation and exchange of information on the effects of atmospheric deposition of pollutants on ecosystems. We envision that these data will enable U.S. scientists, land managers, and environmental policymakers to enter into a productive and meaningful dialogue within the US, and also with the international scientific community on methods for estimating, calculating, mapping, interpreting, and refining critical loads for the effects of acidification and excess nutrient nitrogen on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This paper describes the process used to develop national-scale critical loads in the U.S., summarizes the FOCUS Phase I approach and database development effort, and presents some initial national-scale critical loads mapping products.

Modelling and Mapping of Critical Loads of Acidification and Eutrophication on Forest Ecosystems in Latvia

Modelling and Mapping of Critical Loads of Acidification and Eutrophication on Forest Ecosystems in Latvia The Very Simple Dynamic model (VSD), which has been developed as the simplest extension of steady-state models, has been used for dynamic modelling of critical loads to forest ecosystems. The model consisting of a set of mass balance equations describes the soil input and output data relationships and fluxes, and soil properties. The mapping of critical loads of acidity and eutrophication effects is performed on 25562 deciduous, coniferous and mixed forest soil receptor polygons (area > 0.01 km2). The results have been mapped in the geographical units of EMEP grid (50 × 50 km2).

Modeling of critical lead loads on natural ecosystems of Belarus

We give an outline of the model of behavior of heavy metals in terrestrial ecosystems and present the results derived from implementing it in estimating critical lead loads on natural ecosystems of Belarus. We provide the main methodological approaches, the algorithm, the composition of input information, the soil-geochemical, biogeocenotic, hydrological-climatic and other parameters used in the study as well as starting cartographic information. We provide the results of calculations in terms of the model as well as the maps of critical lead loads on the main types of natural terrestrial ecosystems of Belarus according to the effect-oriented and preservation approaches and demonstrate some cases where the existing levels exceed the calculated load standards.

Modelling and mapping critical loads and exceedances for the Georgia Basin, British Columbia, using a zero base-cation depletion criterion

Critical load (CL) and exceedance maps of sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N) for upland soils were generated for the Georgia Basin, British Columbia, Canada, by synthesizing available data layers for atmospheric deposition, climate (precipitation, temperature), soil, site classification and elevation. Critical loads were determined using the steady-state mass-balance model and a criterion based on zero-tolerance for further base-cation depletion. The resulting CL values were generally lowest on ridge tops and increased towards valleys. Critical load exceedance ranged from 13% of the Georgia Basin under wet deposition to 32% under modelled total (wet and dry) deposition. Moreover, exceedance increased by an additional 10% when considering upland areas only for the Georgia Basin. Significant portions of the Georgia Basin are predicted to experience exceedance-enhanced base-cation depletion rates above 200 eq ha–1 y–1 and turn-over times to a final new base saturation state within 200 years under continued atmospheric S and N deposition.

The Applicability of National Critical Loads Data in Assessing Designated Sites

Critical loads have been successfully used within Europe in the development of effects-based policies for pollution abatement, including the Second Sulphur Protocol and the Protocol to abate acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone (CLRTAP, 1979). This success has encouraged the UK Environment Agency and Conservation Agencies to use the national critical load maps as a screening tool in assessing the threats from acidification and eutrophication to designated (Natura 2000) sites. The UK maps of critical loads are based on national-scale data sets appropriate for national-scale assessments, and were never intended for use at the site-specific level. Site-based assessments are often targeted at Special Areas of Conservation, a sub-set of the UK Natura 2000 sites. The spatial data available includes the boundaries of the sites but not the location of the designated features. Ancillary data is variable from one site to another; habitat types may be described in detail with cross-reference to classes of the National Vegetation Classification (NVC: Rodwell, 1991 et seq), but information available on soils and geology is generalised and has not been related to the habitats or species being protected. Hence it can be difficult to relate the individual sites to the national maps, even where appropriate to do so. This paper examines the underlying uncertainties in the national critical load maps showing how the maps could give misleading results if used for site-specific assessments. It also includes advice on how to determine when the national data may be appropriate as a policy-tool at the site-level.

An Overview of Nitrogen Critical Loads for Policy Makers, Stakeholders, and Industries in the United States

Critical load values are calculated to determine ecosystem responses to deposition in a given area; these values may act as a tool to identify sensitive ecosystems in further need of protection. This overview provides an introduction to nitrogen critical loads for policy makers and parties involved in managing nitrogen deposition including electric utility generators, transportation managers and automobile manufacturers, and large-scale agricultural operators in the United States. It examines the use of the critical loads concept in European nations for establishing policy guidelines, current research on nitrogen critical loads in the U.S., and the development of nitrogen critical loads modeling and mapping.

The assessment of Acid concentration and Wet deposition in Spring and Autumn Rainfalls in Mashhad

Acid rain has been a big problem for urban area during recent decades. Acid rain comes from high concentration of air pollutant, including man made or artificial and natural, in the atmosphere. Mashhad, as the biggest religious town in Iran, has also been imposed with this problem. In this investigation the samples of rains during autumn 2002 and spring 2003 are analyzed. The results showed that concentration of different ions (SO4-2, NO2- , NO3- and NH4-) is higher than normal. Using the concentration of ions and average precipitation in Mashhad, the amount of wet deposition acid was calculated. Based on this calculation, the rate of acid that comes to the ground due to the rainfall was more than 24 Kg ha-1. Unfortunately we haven't got any critical load map for our terrain of interest to estimate the hazard. Comparing the wet deposition amount in Mashhad and North Wales in the UK shows that the wet deposition of acids in Mashhad are nearly the same as Wales that is a very pollutant area in UK. If we assume that the amount of dry deposition is something like wet deposition we can get an idea about the amount acid that comes to the ground during each year. According to the results of this research, paying more attention to Mashhad environmental issues is recommended.

Developing a critical load approach for national risk assessments of atmospheric metal deposition

The critical load approach has been proposed for evaluation of the need to reduce atmospheric emissions of metals that lead to transboundary transport and deposition across Europe. The present study demonstrates and evaluates the application of a critical load approach for national-scale risk assessment of metal deposition in the United Kingdom. Critical load maps, calculated using critical limits based on pH-dependent free metal ion activities, are presented. Current concentrations of lead and cadmium in soils are compared with two sets of critical limit values: First, limits based on the reactive soil concentration, and second, a pH-dependent free ion critical limit function, which takes into account variable soil characteristics across the country. The use of these two models leads to different conclusions about which areas of the United Kingdom are at greatest risk, partly because of differences in the range of values of pH and organic matter in soils used in ecotoxicological experiments and in the national database. Critical loads were calculated based on free ion critical limits; the critical loads were lowest in the south and east of the country and were associated with higher soil pH, lower runoff, and lower soil organic matter.

Calculation and mapping of critical loads of sulphur and nitrogen for forest soils in Galicia (NW Spain)

Calculations of critical loads of acidity within Europe have shown Galicia to be one of the regions in Spain with the highest risk of soil acidification by deposition of atmospheric pollutants. We used the simple mass balance method (SMB) to derive critical loads of sulphur and nitrogen for forest soils in Galicia using available site-specific information. Exceedance of acidic deposition was calculated using the deposition levels of N and S registered in 2001. Most forest ecosystems analysed can support acid loads of more than 2000 eq N ha − 1 year − 1 . The lowest critical loads of acidity (1483 eq ha − 1 year − 1 ) occurred in coniferous forest stands growing on shallow soils developed on slates, in the interior zone. The highest critical load values (9386 eq ha − 1 year − 1 ) were observed in coniferous stands in zones with elevated precipitation rates, in the littoral area. The critical load for acidity was exceeded in 5% of the forest soils. Such exceedances were mainly caused by deposition of nitrogen compounds. The contribution of sulphur deposition to acid exceedance was important in the surroundings of the city of A Coruña. Analysis of rainfall bulk composition revealed that N deposition in Galicia was mainly due to ammonium emissions, probably derived from agricultural and cattle breeding activities.

Estimation of Critical Loads of Acidity for Lakes in Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada

The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers (NEG/ECP) adopted the Acid Rain Action Plan in June 1998, and issued a series of action items to support its work toward a reduction of sulfur dioxide (SO(2)) and nitrogen oxide (NO(x)) emissions in northeastern North America. One of these action items was the preparation of an updated critical load map using data from lakes in the NEG/ECP area. Critical load maps provide a more complete index of the surface water sensitivity to acidification. Combined sulfur and nitrogen critical loads and deposition exceedances were computed using Henriksen's Steady-State Water Chemistry (SSWC) model. Results show that 28% of all 2053 lakes studied have a critical load of 20 kg/ha/year or less, making them vulnerable to acid deposition. Emission reductions, and more specifically SO(2) emission reductions have proven beneficial because critical loads were exceeded in 2002 for 12.3% of all studied lakes. Those lakes are located in the more sensitive areas where geology is carbonate-poor. Of these lakes, 2.9% will never recover even with a complete removal of SO(4) deposition. Recovery from acidification for the remaining 9.4% of the lakes will require additional emission SO(2) reductions.

Predicting Freshwater Critical Loads from Catchment Characteristics using National Datasets

Maps of freshwater critical loads are used toguide emission strategies for sulphur and nitrogen bothnationally and internationally. Water chemistry data arerequired to calculate critical loads and the production ofnational maps therefore relies on the existence of extensivechemistry datasets. However, the data required to calculatecritical loads are not readily available for all sites. Thisarticle explores how empirical statistical models mightpotentially be used to predict critical loads using nationallyavailable datasets representing a range of catchmentcharacteristics. Initially a global regression model forexplaining freshwater critical load variation across a broadspectrum of catchment types (from lowland agricultural tomountain lakes) throughout mainland Britain is described. Whenattention is focused on more specific catchment types (i.e.upland and non-arable) it is shown that the global model hasless explanatory power. A regionalisation of Great Britain(based on 100 km grid squares) shows that the global modelcannot necessarily be applied successfully within a narrowerregional context. Separate analyses were undertaken on each ofthe regional subsets using backward selection regression. Thevariables emerging as significant predictors variedsubstantially across the regions, as did the explanatory powerof the models. This was also the case when the analysis wasconfined to upland and non-arable catchments. This approachcould be developed so that critical loads assessments can bemade for populations of standing waters rather than simplythose for which water chemistry is available.

Derivation and mapping of critical loads for nitrogen and trends in their exceedance in Germany.

The term “critical load” means a quantitative estimate of an exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant harmful effects on specified sensitive elements of the environment do not occur, according to present knowledge. In the case of nitrogen, both oxidised and reduced compounds contribute to the total deposition of acidity, which exceeds critical loads in many forest ecosystems. These also cause negative effects through eutrophication. Critical loads of nitrogen were derived for forest soils (deciduous and coniferous forest), natural grassland, acid fens, heathland, and mesotrophic peat bogs. In Germany, a decrease in sulphur emissions over the past 15 years resulted in a reduced exceedance of critical loads for acid deposition. In the same period it was noted that reduction in the emissions of nitrogen oxides and ammonia remained insignificant. Therefore, emissions of nitrogen compounds have become relatively more important and will continue to threaten ecosystem function and stability. The risk of environmental damage remains at an unacceptable level. The German maps show the degree to which the critical loads are exceeded, and they present current developments and an expected future trend. Results indicate that recovery from pollutant stress occurs only gradually.

Calculation and mapping of critical loads of sulfur and nitrogen in Flanders, Belgium

Up to now, critical loads calculations for the Flemish Region were based on European background data of surrounding countries. A first attempt has been made to calculate and map critical loads for forest ecosystems in Flanders using available site-specific information. Values of current deposition were used to calculate and map exceedances. The lowest critical loads for acidification (697 eq ha −1 year −1) occur in the Campine and the north of Limburg where ecosystems largely consist of coniferous forests on poor sandy soils. The dominance of coniferous forest types in the Campine is also responsible for low critical load values for eutrophication (between 536 and 971 eq ha −1 year −1). In 75% of the receptor points that have been considered an exceedance of the critical load for acidification is noted, primarily in areas with high SO 2 and NO x depositions, such as the north of the provinces East and West Flanders and Antwerp. The critical load for eutrophication is exceeded in all points considered. Exceedances are particularly high in coniferous forests in West Flanders, and in the north of the provinces of Antwerp and Limburg, where especially NH x depositions amount to high values. Data needed for the calculation of critical loads are still sparse in Flanders, e.g. for: (1) weathering rates of soil minerals; (2) interception and evaporation of forest ecosystems; and (3) uptake of N and basic cations by vegetation. This supplementary information will contribute to a further refining of the calculated critical loads, which constitute indispensable information in developing an emission abatement policy.

Considerations of uncertainty in setting critical loads of acidity of soils: the role of weathering rate determination

The concept of critical loads has been generally accepted throughout Europe, and increasingly in Asian countries and the rest of the world, as providing the data which forms the basis for international negotiations on abatement strategies for emissions of acidifying pollutants. Central to the determination of quantitative critical loads of acidity for forests (and other ecosystems) is the rate at which the minerals in the soil weather or dissolve. Seven methods for determining these rates on a regional basis for the production of critical load maps have been suggested by the official bodies which are responsible for co-ordinating the European critical load mapping efforts. These methods are largely correlations which require a knowledge of the soil parent material and/or the soil mineralogy. The purpose of this paper is to review these weathering rate calculation methods and to assess whether it is currently possible to calculate numerically accurate critical loads for the production of regional critical load maps. A consideration of the data used to generate these methods and comparisons of the weathering rates calculated using various methods leads to the conclusion that at present it is not. Further work is needed to develop and maintain the initial credibility of critical loads both scientifically and as an aid to policy decisions.

Calculation and mapping of critical loads for heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants for Dutch forest soils

In order to enable application of the critical load approach in the international heavy metal and POP abatement policies, critical loads of lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, lindane and benzo( a)pyrene have been calculated for Dutch forest soils. The environmental risk of atmospheric deposition of these substances on Dutch forest soils has been described in terms of the difference between the calculated present atmospheric loads and critical loads. Results indicate that the calculated critical loads strongly depend on the type of environmental quality criterium which serves as a basis for the calculation. More information on the quality criteria to be used is thus essential to gain insight in the risk of the loads of heavy metals and POPs on the terrestrial ecosystem.

Predicting Freshwater Critical Loads of Acidification at the Catchment Scale: An Empirical Model

Current applications of the critical loads concept are geared primarily toward targeting emission control strategies at a national and international level. Maps of critical loads for freshwaters have been produced in grid form based on water samples of representative sites within each grid square. However, the water chemistry data required to calculate freshwater critical loads are not always readily available at a national level and maps are therefore limited to catchments where such data exist. This paper describes the development of an approach that uses nationally available secondary data to predict freshwater critical loads for catchments lacking the appropriate water chemistry information. An empirical statistical model is calibrated using data from 78 catchments throughout Scotland. Water chemistry for each catchment has been determined. Each catchment is characterized according to a number of attributes. Redundancy analysis of these data shows clear relationships between catchment attributes and the critical load derived from the water chemistry. The key variables that explain most of the variation in critical load relate to soil, geology and land use within the catchment. Using these variables as predictors in a regression analysis, the critical load can be predicted across a broad gradient of sensitivity (R2adj=0.81). The predictive power of the model was maintained when different combinations of explanatory variables were used. This accords the approach a degree of flexibility in that model parameterization can be geared toward availability of secondary data. There are limitations with the model as presently calibrated. However, the approach offers considerable scope for environmental managers to undertake national inventories of catchment sensitivity and specific assessments of individual catchments.