Criteria Of Membership Research Articles

Examining the Possibility of Fuzzy Set Theory Application in Travel Demand Modelling

The sources of errors in travel demand model output are not only from a lack of information related to the parameters that the model tries to estimate but also due to the absence of sharply defined criteria of class membership that can play important roles in human thinking, for which qualitative variables may be better representations. Fuzzy Set Theory (FST) is suggested as an approach to tackle the computation of such variables. Combined with other approaches, in this case Artificial Neural Network (NN) and Doubly Constrained Gravity (DCG), the FST is used to model intra city work trip distribution with trip length addressed as a fuzzy attribute. However, the fuzzy model tends to perform with the same level of accuracy as un-combined models. In some cases, the hybrid models have a slightly lower performance than NN and DCG. Findings from this study suggest that FST may be suitable for inter city trip, but not short trip distribution model.

Evidence for what? Evidentiality and scope

Abstract This paper deals with the scope properties of evidential meanings. It rejects the idea that different types of evidential meanings have different scope properties. More basically, it rejects the idea that evidential meanings apply to ‘speech acts’ or to ‘states of affairs’. The paper argues that evidential meanings share scope properties in the sense that they are all conceptually dependent on a ‘proposition’ – i.e. a meaning unit which can be said to have a truth value. Subsequently, it outlines how the scope properties can be employed in criteria of membership of the category of evidentiality.

DEEPENING OF DEMOCRATIZATION IN UKRAINE - APPROACHMENT TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC ALLIANCE

The article deals with the issue of Ukraine’s cooperation with NATO as an Alliance of democratic states. During recent years Ukraine–NATO relations have been significantly improved. The chance to join NATO is becoming possible for our state. One of the main criteria of NATO membership is the development of the democratic society in Ukraine.

Populism and euroscepticism: Towards uncivil society?

This paper examines and classifies “uncivil society” in Europe, that is, a set of associational activities characterized by discursively exclusionist, undemocratic or violent features. With particular reference to organizations connected to the political right, it examines the relation between political systems and civil society, identifying the factors that have made civil society relevant for political actors and pointing to a relation of mutual dependence between the associational world and political movements and parties. It is argued that membership in uncivil society organizations is an alternative type of political participation which articulates growing anti-political sentiments, and that the emergence of uncivil society activities is rooted in newly relevant conceptions of social and political life which are anti-modern and based on ascriptive criteria of membership. Uncivil society organizations are classified as racist, nationalist and populist, and characterized as biologically essentialist, or territorially or culturally exclusionist.

Blood and Soil of the Soviet Academy: Politically Institutionalized Anti-Semitism in the Moscow Academic Circles of the Brezhnev Era through the Life Stories of Russian Academic Emigrants

The blood-and-soil concept relates to nationalism tied to land that is tied to specific bloodlines—meaning reconsideration of national membership on the basis of ethnicity. Soil affiliation implies objective criteria of national membership, related to birthplace or residence and associated with providing roots (homeland attachments, friends, marriage, children, or citizenship). The idea of blood and soil is about rejecting a soil claim in those with different, “wrong,” blood. As part of national purification, blood-and-soil nationalism emerges as a political process using the “blood” concept as a mechanism to restrict national membership—to reconsider the soil benefits by not making them accessible to everybody. In this work I will use the term “blood and soil'” to stress the exclusive nature of Soviet Russian ethnonationalism in relation to Jews as its number one target and to show the controversy surrounding Soviet membership.

A NEUTROSOPHIC DESCRIPTION LOGIC

Description Logics (DLs) are appropriate, widely used, logics for managing structured knowledge. They allow reasoning about individuals and concepts, i.e. set of individuals with common properties. Typically, DLs are limited to dealing with crisp, well defined concepts. That is, concepts for which the problem whether an individual is an instance of it is a yes/no question. More often than not, the concepts encountered in the real world do not have a precisely defined criteria of membership: we may say that an individual is an instance of a concept only to a certain degree, depending on the individual's properties. The DLs that deal with such fuzzy concepts are called fuzzy DLs. In order to deal with fuzzy, incomplete, indeterminate and inconsistent concepts, we need to extend the capabilities of fuzzy DLs further. In this paper, we will present an extension of fuzzy [Formula: see text], combining Smarandache's neutrosophic logic with a classical DL. In particular, concepts become neutrosophic (here neutrosophic means fuzzy, incomplete, indeterminate and inconsistent), thus, reasoning about such neutrosophic concepts is supported. We will define its syntax, its semantics, describe its properties and present a constraint propagation calculus for reasoning.

Social Exclusion: Comparative Analysis of Europe and Middle East Youth

Most typically, analyses of youth have employed either the neo-classical economic framework of human capital or the socio-demographic framework of life-course research in the Middle East. While both have produced important findings and insights, their focus on supply-side processes of individuals is limited. The role of institutions on the supply side is especially important in understanding youth disadvantage in the Middle East. As research turns to the sources of youth disadvantage, comparative studies may fruitfully adopt a perspective oriented to the idea of social exclusion. Whatever the content and criteria of social membership, socially excluded groups and individuals lack capacity or access to social opportunity. Exclusion breaks the larger social bond holding groups together. Thus, exclusion is at once a macro and a micro phenomenon. The theoretical orientation of social exclusion can be distinguished from the previous two approaches in that it considers trajectories of group relations as well as relations between individuals, and examines not only those excluded, but also the excluding institutions and individuals that benefit from the process.

Citizenship and stratification in an ethnic democracy

A theoretical framework of multiple citizenship discourses is proposed for analysing the transformation of the structure of ethnic relations in the yishuv and Israel. An historical overview indicates how Israel's 'incorporation regime' for its main ethnic and religious groups - ashkenazim, mizrachim, Orthodox-Jews, citizen and non-citizen Palestinians - was constituted through a hierarchical combination of three citizenship discourses: a collectivist republican discourse, based on the civic virtue of 'pioneering' colonization; an ethno-nationalist discourse, based on Jewish descent, and an individualist liberal discourse, based on civic criteria of membership. It is suggested that Israel's historical trajectory has consisted in its gradual transformation from a colonial to a civil society, and concomitantly in the gradual replacement of its republican citizenship discourse by a liberal discourse. Finally, the dilemmas of its ethnic and religious groups in choosing between the liberal and the ethno-nationalist citizenship discourses in the current period are charted.

The politics of exclusion: Australia, Turkey and definitions of regionalism

The regions of the world that coalesce into blocs are rarely self‐defining or obvious. This article argues that the definitions of regional bloc membership ‐ be they economic interdependence, geographic contiguity or cultural affinity ‐ are used by their advocates to advance definite agendas of national and regional activism, and that the criteria of membership or exclusion are determined by competing political visions for the region. To demonstrate this, the present relationship of exclusion between Turkey and the EU is compared with the possibility of a similar relationship emerging between Australia and an emerging East Asian bloc. The article concludes by suggesting that a new development may be emerging alongside exclusive regional blocs ‐ tiered regionalism ‐ which creates associations with aspirant states without giving them access to the core bloc decision‐making procedures.

Citizenship East and West

The outcome of the political transition in Eastern Europe depends not only on the politics pursued but on the understanding of politics pursued but on the understanding of politics in the countries involved. This volume examines a key aspect of this understanding, the notion of ‘citizenship’ as it is being defined in Eastern Europe today. Formally, ‘citizenship’ refers to the criteria of membership in a political community. More broadly, it raises key questions of identity, contract and culture, which bear upon the future of such issues as human rights, mobility and the relations between state and civil society in the post-communist world. This interdisciplinary collection brings together sociologists, jurists and political theorists from Poland, Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Republic as well as from Switzerland, France, Great Britain and the United States. The volume seeks to articulate and compare the meanings and implications of ‘citizenship’ in terms of key issues and in several national contexts. Common to all contributions is the conviction that a comparison among different understandings of citizenship illuminates national specifications and brings into focus some of the constraints on the emergence of a democratic consensus shared by East and West.

Love Attitudes: Similarities between Parents and between Parents and Children

LOVE ATTITUDES SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PARENTS AND BETWEEN PARENTS AND CHILDREN* Jill Inman-Amos, Susan S. Hendrick, and Clyde Hendrick** As we attempt to understand how young adults form primary romantic attachments, we must consider a number of potential influences, ranging from parental socialization to peer group norms. The parent-child relationship usually is a child's initial primary social relationship, and may provide a model for later intimate relationships (e.g., Bowlby, 1969). How parents relate to each other may also affect the attitudes and values the child forms about relationships (e.g., Amato, 1986). In addition to the effects of their overt behavior, it may also be that the attitudes that parents hold about their own intimate relationships and about intimate relationships in general ultimately will influence their children's attitudes about relationships (e.g., Fisher, 1986). Young adults are also influenced heavily by their peers (for a review, see Gecas & Seff, 1990). Thus, a number of early socialization influences may affect the process of children's later formation of romantic attachments. This article is primarily concerned with how parents might affect one aspect of a child's romantic relationship, namely the child's attitudes toward love. This specific research issue exists within a broader context of attitude transmission and family relationships. Transmission of Attitudes Two perspectives informed the current research. The cohort perspective on attitudes (e.g., Bengston & Cutler, 1976) focuses on ways in which groups (identified by the various criteria of generational membership) differ with respect to specified attitudes or behaviors. Given this perspective, it might be expected that young adults would hold attitudes and values similar to those of their peers, and might be less likely to simply assume parental attitudes and values (e.g., Clebone & Taylor, 1992). A lineage perspective views childhood socialization as so intense that the attitudes formed in the family context are handed down from parents to child, persisting through adolescence and perhaps across the lifespan (Paikoff & Brooks-Gunn, 1991). As a result, children share parental perceptions of the world (Bengston & Black, 1973; Gecas & Seff, 1990). Parental attitude transmission may be influenced by a number of factors, including general family cohesiveness (Troll, Neugarten, & Kraines, 1969), attitude agreement between the parents (Jennings & Niemi, 1968), and parental supportiveness of the child (Sanders & Mullis, 1988). In contrast, some research indicates that the degree of emotional closeness between parents and their children may have little effect on how much parents influence their children (Acock, 1984; Kandel & Lesser, 1972; Smith, 1983). One key finding has been that attitude congruence between children and parents was highest for behaviors that were highly visible and salient over long periods of time (e.g., religious affiliation, political party affiliation), and lowest on abstract or diffuse attitudes and general value statements (e.g., Acock, 1984; Glass, Bengston, & Dunham, 1986; Smith, 1982). In other words, attitudes and values may need to have explicit referents in order for similarity between parents and children to develop. Consistent with this perspective, Fisher (1986, 1988) found that, among late adolescents, parent and child sexual attitudes were correlated in a high family communication group, but not in a low communication group. These findings suggest that attitude congruence between parents and children requires attitude visibility and salience. Some research has focused more specifically on how parents and young adult children may influence each other vis-a-vis the children's intimate relationships. For example, Leslie, Huston, and Johnson (1986) found that children may effectively block a parent's influence by not communicating about partners of whom they know their parents will disapprove (providing indirect evidence that parental attitudes are known and are indirectly shaping communication and behavior). …

Cities, gangs, and delinquency

Most of what we know about the conditions under which today's juvenile gangs originate, their development, their internal processes and mechanisms, and their natural histories is based on research conducted some years ago. The three volumes under review report field research carried out in the early to mid-1980s. They can, therefore, help us to determine what is old and what is new with respect to these issues, and to understand both continuity and change. While named gangs feature prominently only in the book by Hagedorn, the groups studied in each fit most definitional criteria of gangs. Definitions of gangs abound in the literature. I define gang as a group whose members meet together with some regularity, over time, on the basis of group-defined criteria of membership and group-defined organizational structure, and some sense of territoriality (Short, 1990: 148). This definition includes neither delinquent nor conventional behaviors, since these typically are what we wish to explain. Nor does it include such trappings as characteristic dress, names, or types of organization, each of which varies in myriad ways that may help in understanding gang behavior.

Kuo-lu: A Sworn-Brotherhood Organization in Szechwan

Vol. 6, No. 1 Late Imperial ChinaJune 1985 KUO-LU: A SWORN-BROTHERHOOD ORGANIZATION IN SZECHWAN Cheng-yun Liu* Long before the outbreak of the White Lotus Rebellion in 1796, a bandit organization known as the Kuo-lu rampaged through the eastern part of Szechwan and the mountainous areas of Hupeh and Shensi provinces . Although their power never grew strong enough to challenge the provincial authorities, the Chien-lung Emperor was very much concerned with their activities. Throughout the Ch'ien-lung period (17361795 ), local officials were under great pressure to destroy the Kuo-lu. Yet they somehow survived and remained active throughout the nineteenth century even as more elaborate organizations such as the T'ien-ti hui and the Ko-lao hui proliferated. Some historians have argued that the Ko-lao hui was derived from the Kuo-lu, mainly on the ground that both used similar terms to designate their group and leaders (Liu 1983). Nevertheless, the aim of this article is not to explore the connection between the Kuo-lu and the Ko-lao hui, but to study the Kuo-lu itself: to look at why people formed the Kuo-lu, who joined it, and how and where they conducted their activities. The Kuo-lu was an example of sworn brotherhood, which was also the basis of the more elaborate organizations like the Ko-lao hui and other secret societies. I would argue that the sworn brotherhood provided criteria of membership that enabled socially marginal men to survive outside the traditional networks of kinship, territorial, and occupational groups. In other words, the Kuo-lu was a kind of mutual assistance organization for those deprived of other help. I believe that this view may also explain why such secret societies as the Ko-lao hui flourished in the nineteenth century. *I would like to thank Professors Evelyn S. Rawski, Cho-yun Hsu, and Rubie Watson, all of the University of Pittsburgh, and the editors of this journal for their comments and editorial assistance. 56 Kuo-lu: A Sworn-Brotherhood Organization in Szechwan57 To study the Kuo-lu, I rely heavily upon memorials collected from the Ch'ing Archives in Taipei,1 mostly confessions of convicted Kuo-lu based on an investigation in 1781. This investigation appears to have been carried out with special diligence and intensity, for a rash of official reports poured into the court within a period of four months. These sudden official efforts to pursue the Kuo-lu were largely due to the Ch'ien-lung Emperor's personal interest. Alarmed by the upsurge of Kuo-lu activities, the emperor repeatedly ordered officials in Hunan, Hupeh, Kweichow, and Szechwan seriously to look into the problem, for he was afraid that these might lead to rebellion.2 The Governor-General of Szechwan, Wen Shou, was even demoted and then relieved from his position for failing to follow these orders seriously.3 This was obviously a warning to others. Using these archival materials, I have reconstructed the activities of 59 Kuo-lu bands although not all these cases are well covered. This data set is the main source of my statistical analysis.4 The Veritable Records (Shih-lu) and contemporary accounts are also used to complement the archival materials especially for the period after 1795, when official reports on the Kuo-lu are relatively scarce in the Taipei archives. The following analysis is therefore divided into two parts; the major part is concerned with the Kuo-lu during the Ch'ien-lung period; a second briefer section deals with the Kuo-lu in the nineteenth century. 'The Archives contain more than one million official documents, including record books, gazetteers, biographical packets, routine memorials, and palace memorials. Among them, the most relevant to this study are palace memorials, which were reports sent directly to the emperor from provincial governors, high ranking local officials and officers, and special envoys to the emperor. Local disturbances were always a favored subject in the memorials. Much information on the date, locations, names of leaders, and forms of action can thus be retrieved from the memorials. For a brief introduction to the Ch'ing Archives in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, see Chuang...

The Evolution of the Class Structure of France, 1901-1968

While the concept of is central to the theoretical analysis of any society, in France it has recently become the subject of intense political controversies. Some assumptions concerning the class map of the social structure must underlie any choice of political strategy, and indeed in France the two discussions-of the strategy of alliances and of structure-have been closely interwoven.' These discussions, however, are neither new nor peculiar to France. An integral part of the political and the theoretical struggles over the concept of has been a continuing debate over the status of groups which are generated in the process of capitalist development but which do not correspond to traditional notions of either the proletariat or the bourgeoisie. Indeed, the difficulties encountered by Marxist theory in analyzing the structure of concrete capitalist societies had already appeared at the time of the formation of the socialist movement.2 However classes may be defined and organized, they must have criteria of membership and hence more or less definite sizes. But despite the ubiquity and intensity of theoretical debate, it is striking how little of the rudimentary information is available for studies of the evolution of the structure of the entire adult population under various criteria of membership. Hence, our purpose in this article is not to take a direct part in any of these controversies but rather to provide numerical information that elucidates the consequences of alternative definitions of in France.

Illegitimate group membership and inter‐group differentiation

Those who gain membership of a group by deceit, evading the norms, rules or laws which mark the group boundary, are illegitimate group members. The impact of illegitimate membership upon the tendency to engage in inter‐group differentiation was examined. It was predicted that subjects experiencing incompatibility between the internal and the external criteria of group membership, generated by their illegal entry, would in their attempts at resolution, engage in a redefinition of group structures and inter‐group relations ‐ evidenced primarily in the accentuation of discrimination against the outgroup on all dimensions of differentiation available even when these dimensions are irrelevant to the original groupings. These predictions were confirmed.

Color Differentiation in the American Systems of Slavery

Color Differentiation in the American Systems of Slavery In the comparative study of race relations, the evolution of group identity constitutes a central process.I Although group boundaries tend to be taken as given, they are more fluid than is often supposed. The criteria of membership may change, and the inclusiveness of the groups may expand or contract accordingly. The forces promoting the redefinition of ethnic group boundaries are only imperfectly understood. This applies particularly to the emergence of new groups. While the study of assimilation has received much attention, the study of differentiation has not. Ethnic contact and the progeny it produces, for example, provide opportunities for the creation of new ethnic categories. But the opportunities are not always taken. In some cases, distinctive mixed-blood groups emerge; in others, the offspring are incorporated in one or another of the original groups. Examples of this process of group differentiation may be found in the history of slavery in the Western Hemisphere. Some slave systems differentiated mulattoes from Africans and bestowed varying degrees of separate status; others suppressed such possible distinctions.2 Everywhere rules were formulated to define the boundaries of the respective groups, to specify the criteria of identification, to categorize marginal cases, and to permit individual exceptions to the rules of group member-

Ingroup Membership and Academic Selection

T O0 WHAT extent does membership in academic ingroups influence selection to faculty posts? We took as criteria of ingroup membership three factors: (I) academic training leading to the successful completion of one or more degrees at Indiana University; (2) known friendship ties between personnel in this and another university; and finally (3) blood and marriage ties between faculty and nonfaculty people. That is, our purpose was to determine how these factors influence the appointment of new staff. The data presented cover all faculty appointments, instructor and above, made in Indiana University from January i, i885, to June 30, 1937. These dates were chosen because they mark the beginning of David Starr Jordan's and the end of William Lowe Bryan's presidencies. The 802 appointments did not include visiting professors, lecturers, army officers, athletic coaches and other special, or part time personnel. The data will be presented in the order of the criteria enumerated to determine ingroup relationship. Because the administrative system informally delegated the selection of new staff almost entirely to the department head or dean,' it enabled him to place the selection of his men on a basis, if he chose to do so. The whole system was built up around and authority, from the president down to instructors. We mean by the phrase personal relationships that men in their day to day experiences build up friendships, sentimental attachments, biases, and antipathies toward the men with whom they work. These evaluations usually take the form of emotional attitudes, and act as strong ties binding men together, as well as diverting them into hostile groups. I. Alumni Appointments. Alumni of Indiana University who were known to the faculty, and, in a sense, automatically members of the university ingroup, comprised 42.89 percent of the 802 appointees from i885 to 1937.2 The selection of staff on the basis of biases is evident in certain departments, such as Botany (i6 to 6), Chemistry (21 to 2), Mathematics (i9 to 9), and Physics (i9 to 7), which have appointed alumni to faculty positions in almost all cases. The figures clearly demonstrate that member-