Criminal Violations Research Articles

PENEGAKAN HUKUM DALAM PENGAWASAN ORANG ASING DI MASA PANDEMI COVID-19

The purpose of this study is to analyze forms of immigration criminal violations committed by foreigners and law enforcement mechanisms in an effort to supervise foreigners during the Covid-19 pandemic. This study uses a normative legal research method, because this research analyzes legal materials based on concepts, theories, laws and regulations, doctrines, legal principles and the author's opinion. 
 The study findings various policy instruments and strategies were issued by General Director of Immigration to overcome the problems due to restrictions on the mobility of people, including foreigners. There are two forms of violation of the Immigration Law, namely administrative violations and pro-justice violations. This study found that the types of violations committed by foreigners include abuse of residence permits, falsification of documents and involvement in human trafficking. The Directorate General of Immigration as the authorized party to enforce immigration law takes action against violators of immigration law who commit administrative and criminal violations in accordance with applicable regulations.
 There are three recommendations from this study. First, socialization related to immigration services during the pandemic must be increased. Second, it is necessary to build synergy and coordination between Timpora, especially in detecting potential vulnerabilities in the presence and activities of foreigners in Indonesia. Third, a structured law enforcement organizational is needed which clearly and hierarchically on function, controlling, supervised of the law enforcement process. Fourth, improving the competence of immigration personnel needs to be intensified to understand the substance and technicalities, especially in mastering information technology

The Deterrent Effect of Federal Corporate Prosecution Agreements: An Exploratory Analysis

In this paper, we explore the potential deterrent effect of federal pretrial agreements by examining the extent of violations subsequent to an organization signing a pretrial agreement. More specifically, this research examines the subsequent criminal, civil, and regulatory violations of 161 publicly-traded firms that signed federal deferred prosecution agreements and non-prosecution agreements between 2001 and 2020. Our analysis identified 87 recidivist companies with a total of 629 subsequent violations, eight of which were criminal violations. While most companies had only one subsequent violation, one company had 63 noted violations after signing the pretrial agreement. Our exploratory analyses reveal that companies paying larger penalties as part of the pretrial agreement were less likely to have subsequent violations, and, when examining U.S.-based companies only, that larger organizations were more likely to have subsequent violations. These preliminary results are important to understanding both corporate deterrence generally, and the use of pretrial agreements as a corporate deterrent specifically.

Problems of Defining the Object of Bribery and the Specifics of Its Detection in the Present-Day Realities

Digital currency, including such its variety as cryptocurrency, has become a part of our life. It is legal thanks to the Federal Law «On Digital Financial Assets, Digital Currency and Amendments to Some Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation» of July 31, 2020 № 259-ФЗ. However, alongside the advantages connected with any achievements in digitization, this phenomenon has got a dark side. Cryptocurrency has become not just a means of payment in the virtual world, but also an object of criminal infringements. In connection with this, it became necessary to provide for an opportunity to recognize cryptocurrency as a possible object in the crimes of corruption. The purpose of our study is to examine the current state and to identify the problems in the legal regulation of bribing a public officer on duty by transferring cryptocurrency. The authors also review the possibility of classifying the extortion of sexual services through the abuse of official authority as a manifestation of corruption. The study is based on the analysis of Russian and foreign research publications in law and economics journals. The empirical part of the study is based on the research of the Decrees of the Plenary Sessions of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the resolutions of the courts of general jurisdiction. Besides, the authors conducted a content-analysis of electronic mass media on the use of cryptocurrency as an object of crimes and on blockchain technology that counteracts corruption on the Internet. The conducted research allowed the authors to come the following conclusions: 1) cryptocurrency can be recognized as an object of criminal corruption, and an obligatory condition for this recognition is the monetary evaluation of the transferred currency; 2) the mechanism of giving and receiving bribes of cryptocurrency has been determined; 3) Art. 133 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation «Compulsion to Perform Sexual Actions» cannot act as an effective instrument in fighting the extortion of sexual services as an object of bribery; 4) the criteria for differentiating between a bribery and gift have been defined; 5) law enforcement bodies need to change the methodology for the identification and investigation of crimes in cyberspace.

Modus Operandi of the Crime as a System-Forming Element of the Criminalistic Description of Crimes Connected with Altering Identification Marks on Vehicles

The system of actions of a person (or persons) involved in unlawful activities of preparing, committing and hiding a criminal act is traditionally called modus operandi in criminalistic publications, it is the basic and one of the most informative elements of the criminalistic description of crimes connected with altering vehicle identification marks (further — VIM). The author analyzed the practice of law enforcement, specialized publications and vehicle technical examinations of VIMs to find and describe 22 methods of altering VIMs, which are then used to single out key features testifying that the initial identifications marks of a vehicle have been altered. Besides, the author found an interconnection and interdependence between the modus operandi of the crime, the object of criminal infringement and the personality of the criminal, which will undoubtedly facilitate the process of proposing and verifying typical investigation leads.

The practical problems in banning tainted stars and ways of improvement

In recent years, “banning” has gradually become a common means for public power to control the quality of development of cultural industry and improve public civilization. The concerns about the “banning” system have gradually become a hot issue in society. From the theoretical analysis, “banning” refers to the administrative penalties imposed by the National Radio and Television Administration on tainted stars by removing their works from public platforms and restricting their employment. According to the practical experience, there are three main types of “banning”: banning for criminal violations, moral problems, and the wrong attitude toward sensitive issues. According to the social practice of “banning”, there are still problems such as inappropriate agencies for punishment, lack of detailed means, and inadequate relief mechanisms. In this regard, the following aspects should be improved in the future: regulating qualified subjects of punishment, formulating detailed means, and establishing diversified relief mechanisms.

The Effectiveness of the General Elections Supervisory Body in Handling Violations in the 2019 General Elections According to Law Number 7 of 2017 concerning General Elections (Bawaslu Case Study of Bengkulu Province)

In Bengkulu City there are still many violations in every general election such as administrative violations, criminal violations and violations of the code of ethics, there are two problems studied in this thesis, namely How Effectiveness of the General Elections Supervisory Agency in handling violations in general elections, How are the sanctions given by the Election Supervisory Agency General in resolving the handling of violations that occurred in the general election. This type of research method uses normative-empirical legal research methods, namely legal research regarding the enactment or implementation of normative legal provisions in action on every particular legal event that occurs in the community. The theory used in this research is supervisory theory, effectiveness theory, authority theory and rule of law theory. The General Elections Supervisory Body is still less effective in resolving the handling of violations in the general election because there are still many violations that still occur during the general election and the sanctions given have no clear firmness and have not created a deterrent effect for those who commit violations.

СПІВРОБІТНИЦТВО ОРГАНІЗАЦІЇ ОБ’ЄДНАНИХ НАЦІЙ ТА УРЯДУ УКРАЇНИ У СФЕРІ ЗАХИСТУ ПРАВ ДІТЕЙ ЯК НАПРЯМ ЗАГАЛЬНОСОЦІАЛЬНОГО ПОПЕРЕДЖЕННЯ ЗЛОЧИННОСТІ: СУЧАСНІ АСПЕКТИ

At the beginning of the 21st century, many events of an international legal nature took place in the world, which were of great importance for the recognition of human rights and freedoms, and of children in particular, as the highest social value in society. These events also concern our country, which responds to them in a timely manner with appropriate changes in legislation. However, today the world community is faced with the existence of a number of political, economic and military threats, which pose a danger to an indefinite number of people, their most important personal rights and freedoms. We are talking about such things as hybrid wars, military occupations of some countries by others, armed conflicts, and, as a result, migration phenomena and refugees. The aforementioned threats also affected Ukraine with the beginning of the annexation of Crimea and the armed conflict in the east of the country. However, later the eight-year military conflict turned into a real military confrontation, the seizure of more and more territories of our country, continuous aerial bombardment of cities and infrastructure facilities, the death of the civilian population, finally unheard of compared to 2014, the scale of displaced and evacuated Ukrainians to safe places and abroad citizens. The issue of protecting the rights of people affected by these threats is one of the key tasks facing the Government of Ukraine. A prominent place in this issue is given to the problem of protecting the rights of children, who are the guarantor of the existence of the Ukrainian nation in the future. At the same time, it is noted that being alone with the military aggressor in the face of the Russian Federation, Ukraine felt the real friendly support of the entire international community both in the provision of military aid and in the process of supporting the least protected categories of the civilian population - women and children. In this article, the author characterizes the main directions of combating the criminal violation of children's rights in the conditions of a full-fledged military invasion of the territory of Ukraine and the challenges that the subjects of prevention are called to overcome. The role of the United Nations in cooperation with the Government of our country in the joint implementation of measures to overcome them is revealed separately.

Keadilan Pemilu Dalam Perkara Pidana Pemilu: Studi terhadap Putusan Pengadilan

Electoral justice can be seen from at least two important aspects, namely the procedure of the election implementation and the mechanism for resolving election-related offences. Election-related offences are understood as actions that are contrary to the provisions of laws and regulations relating to elections. One of the said election-related offences is resolved through the District Court. However, reflecting on the completion of criminal acts in the 2019 legislative elections, electoral justice has not been successful. Of all the decisions of the District Courts in Yogyakarta and West Sumatra that have been analyzed, all of them issued probation to the perpetrator, regardless of the position of the perpetrator, the type of crime, and other aggravating reasons at trial. This study looks at the tendency of judges in deciding cases of election criminal violations and encourages the optimization of electoral justice in these decisions. This normative legal research emphasizes the use of secondary data, especially the decisions of District Court judges in Yogyakarta and West Sumatra. The results of the study show that first, the tendency of decisions to give very light sentences to perpetrators. Second, electoral justice has not been optimally obtained through the District Court because of the lightness of the sentence issued. This is because judges only consider the juridical aspect alone, without seeing the election as a real implementation of the sovereignty of the people as well as various other philosophical and sociological considerations.

Tasks of Comprehesvie Forensic Environmental and Construction Examination

The article presents the main directions of research carried out within the framework of a comprehensive forensic environmental and construction analysis. This kind of examinations can be conducted on criminal, civil and arbitration cases arising from damage to environmental objects caused by illegal actions committed during the erection and operation of constructions. The authors describe in detail the areas of research which involve specialists in construction and environmental science. To organize multiple studies, the authors provide classifications of solved forensic tasks formed on two grounds: the chronological orientation of examinations and their types. Following the first basis, the authors present retrospective (directed to the past), actualistic (considering the object of expert research in the current time) and prognostic (determining possible changes in the object’s characteristics in the future) tasks. Among the most common tasks for forensic practice, the authors name: existential, identification, diagnostic, situational, regulatory, technical, classification, as well as other tasks that are relevant to an investigated case and determine the effectiveness of the investigation of construction and environmental criminal violations.

Addressing the Question of Seizing Digital Financial Assets, Digital Currency

Digital financial assets, digital currency have become a part of our lives. They were legalized by the Federal Law of July, 31 2020 № 259-ФЗ “On Digital Financial Assets, Digital Currency and the Introduction of Amendments to Some Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation”. However, alongside the positive aspects of advances in digitization, this phenomenon has also got is downside. Digital financial assets, digital currency have become not only a means of payment and capitalization of accounts, but also the objects of criminal infringements. They can be used to pay for illegal actions and to purchase objects whose civil circulation is restricted, which makes it necessary to address the question of seizing digital financial assets and digital currencies in criminal proceedings.

Model Pelanggaran dalam Pelaksanaan Pemilihan Kepala Daerah Kabupaten Pelalawan Berdasarkan Undang-Undang Pemilihan Kepala Daerah Tahun 2020

Election violations in the Pelalawan Regency Head Election will be used as evaluation material in the implementation of the next general election, the findings of violations provide a model/form for improvement. This study uses a normative legal research method that uses a statutory approach. The findings of this study are a model of election violations in the form of election criminal violations, election administrative violations, ethical violations and other legal violations, this is based on findings and reports examined by Bawaslu and by Gakumdu.

An Argument Against Unbounded Arrest Power: The Expressive Fourth Amendment and Protesting While Black

Protesting is supposed to be revered in our democracy, considered “as American as apple pie” in our nation’s mythology. But the actual experiences of the 2020 racial justice protesters showed that this supposed reverence for political dissent and protest is more akin to American folklore than reality on the streets. The images from those streets depicted police officers clad in riot gear and armed with shields, batons, and “less than” lethal weapons aggressively arresting protesters, often en masse. In the first week of the George Floyd protests, police arrested roughly 10,000 people, and approximately 78 percent of those arrests were for nonviolent misdemeanor offenses or criminal violations. Moreover, troubling figures regarding the racial breakdown of protest-related arrests, along with anecdotes from activists, suggest that just as with routine policing, the experiences of Black and white people differ during protests—even when they protest side by side—with police potentially targeting Black activists for arrest. This Article exposes how police officers’ easy access to a wide arsenal of criminal charges serves to trample on expressive freedoms and explains how a new and clearer understanding of the Fourth Amendment’s application to expressive conduct should curb the police’s seemingly unbounded power to arrest protesters. In Part I of this Article, I revisit and review the roots and rationale of the Expressive Fourth Amendment doctrine, which posits that there is an expressive component to Fourth Amendment protection. In Part II, I discuss the criminal statutes that police often use to make arrests during protests and then focus more narrowly on the arrests in New York City in the early days of the George Floyd demonstrations, including the racial makeup of arrestees. In Part III, I explain how the presiding understanding of the Fourth Amendment places minimal limits on a police officer’s ability to arrest, regardless of an individual’s engagement in expressive political conduct. Thereafter, I describe how the Expressive Fourth Amendment should apply to arrests and serve to curtail an officer’s ability to engage in warrantless arrests of protesters for nonviolent misdemeanors.

D-ARP: An Efficient Scheme to Detect and Prevent ARP Spoofing

Nowadays, cyber-attack is a severe criminal violation, and it is one of the most active fields of research. Man-in-the-middle attack (MITM) is a type of cyber-attack in which an unauthorized third party secretly accesses the communication between two hosts in the same network to read=modify the transferred data between them. ARP spoofing-based MITM attack exploits ARP protocol weakness where the attacker associates its MAC address with the IP address of an intended legitimate host. Although there are many defense approaches for ARP spoofing based-MITM attacks, these methods are uncompleted or have a performance overhead since they modify the original ARP protocol. Also, some of these approaches depend on the centralized server which leads to a single point of failure. This paper presents a detection scheme for ARP spoofing-based MITM attack called D-ARP which is compatible with the original ARP protocol. The main idea of D-ARP is to send an ARP packet signed with a key in parallel with the original ARP packets to make a correlation between requests and replies. Each host records the signed ARP packets whether it is a request or a reply in a log file. Based on this correlation, D-ARP matches the injected key to detect ARP spoofing if there is a duplicate or conflict in the MAC address. For more reliability, D-ARP uses the DHCP server and the Nmap feature to detect the MAC addresses of MITM attackers. Moreover, this scheme also offers a module for Admin to create a trusted list of hosts. The experimental results show that D-ARP is very effective to detect and prevent ARP spoofing with zero false positives and zero false negative probabilities without any modifications in the original ARP protocol.

The Development of the Norms and Institutions of Criminal Law in the Transcaucasia Region at the Beginning of the 19th Century

The authors study the development of criminal law in the Transcaucasia region of the Russian Empire in the early 19th century, and discuss the political and legal significance of the accession of Transcaucasia to the Russian Empire. The normative basis of the research is various agreements of the Russian Empire, including agreements with the Khanates of Northern Azerbaijan, the acts of the supreme power —decrees, manifests and instructions, as well as the corresponding narrative materials. The methodological basis of this research is the general dialectic method of scientific cognition, the methods of empirical and theoretical character: description, formalization, comparison, analysis, generalization, deduction and induction, hypothesis, as well as the special legal methods: formal legal, comparative legal. Research results made it possible to prove that, before Transcaucasia joined the Russian Empire, social relationships in the region, including criminal law ones, were regulated by both written and common law, and that state and political changes lead to changes in criminal legislation throughout the whole history. When Transcaucasia, which has a multi-national and multi-confessional population, joined the Russian Empire, the central government faced the task of working out a special criminal law policy of protecting the society from criminal infringements, as well as some other goals and tasks in this area. The authors determine the degree to which the borderland policy of the state influenced the development of the borderland criminal policy, describe legal acts that enacted changes in the criminal legislation. Special attention is paid to describing the institutions of criminal law that underwent changes though the participation of the state in this process; specifics of the goals and tasks of government coercion, as well as the general basics of sentencing are evaluated. The conducted analysis of the contents of historical legal acts allowed the authors to conclude that, after joining the Russian Empire, the essential tasks of the criminal law of Transcaucasia were, for the first time, formulated at the normative level, including such tasks as crime prevention and the protection of individuals and public safety from criminal infringements. The fundamental principles of humanism and justice, different from the previously dominant ones, were established in the criminal law.

Криминологические особенности киберпреступности, направленной против несовершеннолетних

Cybercrime today is one of the fastest growing types of criminal activity that encroach on various social groups of community. Today, in addition to criminal acts aimed at economic profit, the level of criminal infringements aimed at the personal rights of children, has increased, as has the involvement of minors in the commission of serious and particularly serious crimes.
 Crimes against children committed in the information environment are different from traditional forms of criminal abuse, and are characterized by particular cruelty, a high level of proficiency of perpetrators, anonymity (identity of a perpetrator is hidden behind an information code) and transnationality. Conditionally the activities of cybercriminals can be categorized as offences aimed at the personal rights of children and criminal acts aimed at involving minors in offences through the information environment.
 Cybercriminal activities include, inter alia, trafficking in children in information and telecommunications networks; sexual exploitation of minors, including involvement in prostitution; inducement of children to commit suicide; and others. Such acts constitute serious or particularly serious crimes aimed at violating the personal rights of children, whose protection requires the development of national legislation and constant international cooperation. The author believes that specific international treaties on cooperation in the detection of cybercrime should be concluded, as well as general rules on the definition of various forms of cybercrime.

Online child sexual exploitation material: A comparison from police data on men charged with child sexual exploitation material exclusively and men charged with contact child sexual abuse exclusively

We do not know whether men who access Child Sexual Exploitation Material (CSEM) are contact child-sex offenders using technology - or a new and different type of child sex offender. This study compares men who were charged with Contact Child Sexual Abuse (CCSA) (n = 95) exclusively, and men who were charged with offences involving online CSEM (n = 99) exclusively. This is the first study of its kind in Australia, the first to divide participants into mutually exclusive offending type groups and to do this using police data. Logistic regression results indicated that CSEM offenders were significantly more likely to be older, more likely to be employed, have fewer criminal charges and supervision violations compared to CCSA offenders. The findings further highlighted the heterogeneity of those charged with child sexual offences based on offence typology. The identification of demographic, lifestyle and interpersonal characteristic differences between online CSEM and CCSA offenders’ questions the use of uniform approaches to community supervision and treatment protocols. The implications of these findings are discussed in light of an increased volume of people charged with CSEM offences.

Specific Features of Protection Against Computer-Aided Criminal Infringements on Cashless (Electronic) Funds in Contemporary Criminal Legislations of Belarus and Russia

The dominance of a distance form of interactions in modern conditions resulted in an increase in operations with cashless (electronic) funds, which led to a growth of the number of acquisitive cybercrimes. The author examines criminal law measures of protecting cashless (electronic) funds against criminal infringements in the cybersphere and conducts legal analysis of regulations on acquisitive crimes against property and information security reflected in criminal legislations of Belarus and Russia. Special attention is paid to the characteristic features of protection measures against acquisitive cybercrimes involving cashless (electronic) funds in modern criminal legislations of Belarus and Russia. Current Belarus legislation differentiates criminal liability using unified criteria (method and property size) within the same corpus delicti of three crimes in Ch. 24 and 31 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Belarus. In the Russian legislation, the differentiation of criminal liability is based on three criteria (size, type of money or method) within five corpora delicti in Ch. 21 and 28 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. The author specifically states that the use of such a differentiation approach in determining liability for online theft of cashless money in the norms of Russian criminal law leads, firstly, to considerable difficulties in determining the forms and specific criteria of such theft and, secondly, to the application of more (or less) severe measures of punishment for identical crimes. Using a detailed comparative analysis of modern criminal legislations of Belarus and Russia regarding online criminal infringements against cashless (electronic) money, the author draws a conclusion on the use of regulations in the Russian law that would make it possible to fully take into account various specific features of online infringements on cashless (electronic) money and to apply unified criteria for the differentiation of criminal liability within one corpus delicti, for example, in the form of theft in the sphere of computer information whose modus operandi is thoroughly described in one of the norms on computer crimes in Art. 159.6 of the Criminal Code of Russia.

‘What is exploitation and workplace abuse?’ A classification schema to understand exploitative workplace behaviour towards migrant workers

ABSTRACT Migrant workers and domestic workers more broadly, suffer multiple forms of exploitation but the interaction of these forms lacks theorisation. The scholarship on exploitation includes modern slavery studies, Marxism and aligned accounts of unfreedom that help clarify the position of migrant workers. Yet, none of these accounts exhaust the array of exploitative practices that migrant workers face and these approaches often privilege economic violations over other types. This paper argues that a five-type classification schema – adding criminal infringement, denial of leave entitlements, safety violations and discrimination to economic violations – best encompasses the exploitation that migrant workers experience. Drawing upon a new database of 907 court cases litigated by 1912 migrant workers in four countries, it demonstrates that while economic violations predominate they often interact with these other four types of abuse. It suggests that both policy analysis and theoretical accounts of exploitation and abuse should address a broader array of workplace violations, which may provide a jumping-off point for further empirical studies of exploitation.

УМОВИ І МЕХАНІЗМИ ДІЄВОГО ЗАПОБІГАННЯ КОРУПЦІЇ В УКРАЇНІ

Розкрито зміст системно мережевого структурування корупції як інституту абсолютної антисуспільної спрямованості. Увагу приділено понятійній чистоті категоріального апарату, зокрема, розмежовано поняття «корупція» і «хабарництво». Наведено характеристику персоніфікованих і корпоративно-асоційованих суб’єктів корупції, розкрито зміст сучасних форм і характерних різновидів об’єкта корупційного підкупу. Наведено диференційований перелік і розкрито зміст специфічних ринків «корупційних послуг», що функціонують у межах загального «чорного» ринку України. Показано соціально-економічні витоки та розкрито характер особистих і корпоративних інтересів суб’єктів – носіїв корупційних відносин.Визначено реальний спектр руйнівних антисуспільних наслідків синергії бінарної злуки «інституту корупції» з «інститутом кримінальної «чорної» економіки». Виділено три базових блоки злочинної економічної діяльності: 1) кримінальний промисел; 2) надання послуг кримінального характеру; 3) кримінальне порушення норм господарсько-комерційної діяльності. На засадах узагальненого досвіду США визначено необхідні умови й надано пропозиції щодо формування організаційно-економічних та економіко-правових антикорупційних механізмів. Доведено, що подолання корупції неможливе без скасування правового принципу «презумпції невинуватості» у сфері підтвердження легітимності доходів платників податків, які зобов’язані надавати вичерпну інформацію, що доводить легітимність джерел походження особисто-сімейної нерухомості.Визначено умови забезпечення дієвого порядку у сфері обліку і контролю повноти виконання громадянами податкових зобов’язань на засадах удосконаленню механізму декларування доходів та державно-ринкового обліку нерухомості населення України. У контексті критичних зауважень щодо помилок, допущених за останні п’ять років, надано пропозиції стосовно вдосконалення організаційно-економічних засад декларування річних доходів, а також проведення соціально-справедливої і антикорупційної легалізації статків, майна і капіталів фізичних осіб шляхом забезпечення сплати до державної скарбниці компенсаційно-справедливих відшкодувань за завдані бюджету збитки за період незалежності України.

Criminal Liability for Cryptocurrency Transactions: Global Experience

The article examines the features of criminal liability for transactions related to the circulation of cryptocurrencies. In order to determine the specifics of criminal violations in the field of cryptocurrency circulation, the legal nature of cryptocurrencies is studied. It is concluded that in order to properly qualify criminal offenses related to the circulation of cryptocurrencies, it is advisable to recognize cryptocurrencies as a type of property or money. The article analyzes the global approaches to the legal regulation of relations related to the circulation of cryptocurrencies. Based on the results of this analysis, it is concluded that relations regarding cryptocurrencies in most countries of the world are insufficiently regulated and are still outside of the legal field. This complicates, inter alia, the establishment of criminal liability for transactions involving the circulation of cryptocurrencies. A significant part of the article is devoted directly to the study of criminal liability for transactions involving the circulation of cryptocurrencies in different countries. The norms of the Criminal Codes, which establish liability for criminal violations in the field of cryptocurrency circulation, are analyzed. The measures that need to be implemented to ensure the control of government agencies over the circulation of cryptocurrencies and the security of all operations related to cryptocurrencies are identified.