Creative Period Research Articles

The study of the creative directions of the art of the twentieth century in the classes of the theoretical cycle of disciplines in music universities and colleges

The music of the twentieth century is characterized by multidimensional concepts, a variety of composing techniques, a complex content context, which makes it difficult to master the studied material in the lessons of theoretical disciplines of music educational institutions. The purpose of the article is to substantiate the specifics of studying the musical art of the twentieth century within the disciplines of the theoretical cycle of the modern multilevel system of music education. The main method of research was a complex, requiring an interdisciplinary approach (art history, musicology, cultural studies, pedagogy, music pedagogy). The scientific novelty of the study consists in identifying optimal approaches to mastering one of the most difficult periods of composer creativity for students to perceive. As a result, a thesis formulation of the categorical and conceptual apparatus of the studied creative trends, trends and compositional styles with an accompanying illustrative series, both auditory and visual, is proposed. The practical significance of the research lies in the fact that the methodological approaches presented in the work in the study of musical art of the twentieth century will be in demand within the framework of theoretical disciplines at different levels of musical education. The materials are addressed primarily to top-level teachers (bachelor's degree, within the framework of studying the disciplines "History of Foreign Music" and "Music of the twentieth century"), however, they may be in demand, including fragmentary, and in college, and with some adaptation in high schools of music and art schools when studying the composition of the twentieth century centuries.

NEUROSCIENCE AND ART: LIFE AND TIMES OF YANNOULIS CHALEPAS

The objective of this article is to highlight the bidirectional relationship between neuroscience and art in the life and times of the most preeminent sculptor in modern Greek history, Yannoulis Chalepas. Analysis of biographical sources and testimonies on the life and works of Yannoulis Chalepas was performed. Findings are discussed in relation to the neuropsychiatric maladies that he faced in his lifespan and their impact on his art. Yannoulis Chalepas' life and art are trichotomized in a charismatic, premorbid era (1851-1877), a prolonged, medieval, morbid period (1878-1917), and a transfigurative, post morbid era (1918-1938). The amalgamate of medical evidence suggests that Yannoulis Chalepas suffered from schizophrenia. That was reflected in his art through two distinct periods of artistic productivity and stylistic creativity. The bidirectional relationship between neuroscience and art in the history of humanity is also exemplified in the legacy of Yannoulis Chalepas. The borderland of artistic ingenuity with aberrant behavior, the misconceptions of neurocognitive disorders with psychosis along with their associated social stigma, the effect of artistic expression in the manifestation of psychiatric disease, as well as its healing and often transformative power are concepts that still tantalize equally scientists and artists around the globe.

ВОКАЛЬНЫЙ ЦИКЛ Н.Я. МЯСКОВСКОГО «РАЗМЫШЛЕНИЯ»: ПОЭТИЧЕСКОЕ СЛОВО И МУЗЫКА

The article examines N. Myaskovsky's early vocal cycle «Reflections», written in the early period of creativity, from the perspective of the relationship between the poetic text and the musical language, emphasizes the special importance of this composition in the composer's work. In the study of the peculiarities of the organization of poetic speech and its influence on musical stylistics, the authors come to the following conclusions. The use of iambics, enjambment, alliteration, adherence to the Old Slavonic and church vocabulary to embody «high style», following the traditions of German romanticism when describing nature and appeal to antique models can be pointed out in the structure of poems. The affinity of Baratynsky's world of art and the Symbolists’ poetry was also revealed. The language of music is characterized by leitmotiv, dominance of plagal progressions, the contrast of diatonicism and active chromaticism to create a romantic duality. The composer uses the method of pentatonic scale and avoids tonic where the poetic text speaks of illusory worlds or of the future. The authors conclude that many of the music language elements discovered will be further developed in Myaskovsky's later works.

ДИАЛОГ ДЕТЕКТИВА И ИНТЕЛЛЕКТУАЛЬНОЙ ФАНТАСТИКИ В ТВОРЧЕСТВЕ АДОЛЬФО БЬОЯ КАСАРЕСА 1940-Х ГОДОВ

The article deals with the prolific creative period of the prominent Argentine prose writer of the twentieth century Adolfo Bioy Casares - 1940-s. This is the time when his original artistic style was formed, which is studied in the context of the interrelation of elements and features, inherent in both popular and “elevated” literature. The analysis of the novel The Invention of Morel (1940) and the short story In Memory of Pauline (1948) allows us to trace how in Bioy Casares’s prose the features of the crime fiction genre are organically combined with philosophical fiction, and what enriching imprint on this artistic experiment has been left by the collaboration of the writer with Jorge Luis Borges and Silvina Ocampo.

Vilém Dušan Lambl и Харьков: город, университет и личность

The article traces the life and creative period of the great Czech scientist Professor Lyambl, associated with his Kharkov period of life. He is presented not only as a scientist, but also as one of the brightest personalities of his time.

From Shulhoyf to Montparnasse: Cultural Collage in Moshé Vorobeichic's Photography Book The Ghetto Lane in Wilna (1931)

This article discusses the artistic genesis of the first avantgarde photography book in Lithuanian art history, The Ghetto Lane in Wilna (1931) by Moshé Vorobeichic-Moï Ver (Moshe Raviv, 1904–1995), and aims to conduct the first in-depth reconstruction of Vorobeichic’s early biographical and creative period in Vilnius in the 1920s in the local Jewish and multicultural milieu. The research is based on archival materials from Lithuanian state archives and the Raviv family archives in Israel. Vorobeichic, who was born in 1904 in Zaskavichy (currently in Belarus), made his artistic debut in Vilnius in 1923, and studied at the Faculty of Fine Art at Stephen Bathory University from 1923 to 1925. He continued his art studies at the Bauhaus school in Dessau (1927 to 1929) and, from 1929 in Paris at the École Technique de Photographie et de Cinématographie. From 1930 onwards, the photographer used the artistic pseudonym Moï Ver, under which his avant-garde photography book Paris, hailed as a masterpiece of the genre, was published by Editions Jeanne Walter in 1931. During the same period, Vorobeichic participated in Jewish cultural life in Vilnius, and was involved in the early stages of the formation of Yung Vilne, the acclaimed literary and artistic group of interwar Yiddish Modernism. The article aims to identify the cultural contexts in which Moï Ver’s artistic world-view and avant-garde style started to develop. The reconstruction of these contexts makes it possible to identify new semantic aspects in his avant-garde photography book The Ghetto Lane in Wilna, and to rethink its artistic concept. In this way, the cross-cultural semantics of Moï Ver’s photographic collages of Jewish Vilnius will emerge.

The specifics of composer’s interpretation of the genre of prelude in Samuil Feinberg’s creativity

The aim of the article is to determine the specifics of the composer’s embodiment of the prelude genre in the works of S. Feinberg on the example of two cycles “Four preludes” op. 8 and “Three Preludes” op. 15.
 The methodology is based on an integrated approach and includes analytical, comparative, as well as structural-functional and genre-style methods.
 The results are based on the identification of features of the composer’s interpretation of the piano prelude genre in the works of S. Feinberg. Due to the current trend towards the discovery of rarely-performed music, there is a growing interest in the works of S. Feinberg, whose compositional heritage is still poorly known by a wide range of performers and scientists. Some of his works, which are of undoubted artistic value, remain out of the field of view of researchers. This remark is especially appropriate in relation to the genre of prelude in the artist’s legacy, which is represented by two cycles of “Four preludes” op. 8 and “Three Preludes” op. 15. Despite the fact that the composer addressed him in the early period of his work, the originality of the composer’s writing style is clearly manifested in this genre. In the context of the relationship between the compositional style of S. Feinberg and the Scriabin creative tradition, key points are identified that distinguish the manner of interpretation of this genre. It is noted that the originality of composer’s thinking is manifested at various levels of organization of a piece of music. Focusing on the Scriabin’s style of the second period of creativity, which manifests itself in laconic thematism and the absence of a pronounced сantilena, S. Feinberg reinterprets it in figurative, semantic and pianistic terms. The manner of musical utterance of S. Feinberg is marked by greater emotional tension and expression. The composer uses a richer texture, which presents a wide variety of types of small and large piano techniques, with the latter prevailing. It applies elements of polyphonic development. Thanks to this approach to the textured solution, the virtuoso component is even more pronounced in preludes.
 The scientific novelty of the results obtained lies in the fact that for the first time in Ukrainian musicology, an attempt was made to comprehend the features of the interpretation of the piano prelude genre in the works of S. Feinberg, as well as to trace the features of the creative reinterpretation of the Scriabin composer tradition in the early period of S. Feinberg’s work.
 The practical significance of the study lies in the possibility of using its results in higher educational institutions of art education when working on the works of S. Feinberg in the class of special piano, as well as to deepen ideas about the specifics of the composer’s style of this artist.

MUSIC AND SCIENCE IN THE EARLY WORKS OF PÉTER EÖTVÖS

AbstractThis article presents a survey of philosophical perspectives on the phenomena of ‘nature’ and ‘science/scientific’ in music and does so through a closer look at the first creative period of Péter Eötvös as a composer. Since the beginning of his creative career Eötvös has come into contact with issues scanning the relations between music and science, on the one hand, and music and nature, on the other. Considering Martin Heidegger's reflections on the nature of modern science as he articulated them in his Die Zeit des Weltbildes (1938), one can recognise in Eötvös' first creative period (in works like Kosmos, Elektrochronik, Intervalles-Intérieurs, Tale, etc.) not only the motivating, inspiring force of science, but also the limits of this incentive.

Leader in law theory: in memory of Alexander Fedorovich Cherdantsev

The article is dedicated to the memory of Professor A.F. Cherdantsev, a well-known Russian legal theorist. In the focus are creative periods of the scientist's life. Particular attention is paid to his contribution to the development of legal science with the emphasis on law interpretation, scientists achievements in the field of investigating epistemological nature, values (principles) of interpretation of legal norms, formulation of linguistic, systemic and other rules. The author's contribution to the development of methodology of law and his criticism of the integrative approach in jurisprudence have also been illustrated. The article analyzes the scholars development of the legal norm doctrine, its structure, technical and legal regulations, etc. His contribution to the development of educational literature is separately considered and highly appreciated. The tribute is also given to his individual scientific papers. It is proposed to systematize and republish Professor Cherdantsevs works.

Wittgenstein's Tractatus as Poetic Philosophy and Philosophical Poetics

Abstract This article argues that it is helpful to discuss the logico-philosophical contents of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus in terms that confront the poetic and literary qualities of its form and style. To begin with, it analyzes Wittgenstein's short remarks about expression as manifested in the “tone” of Georg Trakl's poetry and the “ineffability” of Ludwig Uhland's poem “Count Eberhard's Hawthorn.” Then it proceeds to consider his exchange of letters with Gottlob Frege about the form and style of the Tractatus. The final part of the article considers such Tractarian metaphors as “showing and saying,” “logical space,” “reflecting the world as in a mirror,” “ineffability,” and “climbing and throwing away a ladder.” The proposed examination concentrates mainly on the distinction—but also the connection—between what, through language as used in both philosophy and poetry, can be said and what can be shown, this being one of the central themes of the Tractatus itself. It is then claimed that the roots of Wittgenstein's later understanding of both “ordinary language” and the connection between philosophy, poetry, and the ethical form of one's life are already present in his first period of creativity.

Reinterpretation of Dalí's »Vidriera Hipercubica« designed by Pérez Piñero in 1971

In 1971, the Spanish architect Emilio Pérez Piñero designed a foldable system of glass panels to separate the stage from the inner courtyard of the Dalí'Theatre‐Museum in Figueras. It is one of his last projects, before his early death by a car accident, ended abruptly this very creative period of the extraordinary constructor. The project is directly appointed by the artist Salvador Dalí himself, who was enthusiastic about Piñero's filigree constructions and called the foldable structure »Vidriera Hipercubica«, making a reference to the 4th dimension as a constant theme in the art of the 20th century. Analogous to the 4th dimension in physics – time, movement stands for the 4th dimension in architecture. The invention of the last system is patented in 1976, four years after the death of the architect under the description »System of Articulated Planes«. It can be read like a construction manual for the hypercubic glass. In the seminar »Movable Structures«, which takes place every summer semester since 2015 at the Institute of Structural Design at Universität Siegen, the realisation of a reinterpretation of the »Vidriera Hipercúbica« is the content of the current course. Following the assembly instructions of different patents by Pérez Piñero, it is possible to use the movement as a design tool, which allows to interpret the 4th dimension in architecture. One of the objectives is to pass the technical limits of that time and to integrate new possibilities in manufacturing. In particular, new types of glazing material will be used as well as digital production processes for connecting details. The reinterpretation focuses not only in its architectural interest, but also in the further development of the research work started by Piñero 50 years ago as well as to achieve innovative options of application. Hence, the imaginable use of foldable structures for the mobile installation of solar collectors could be one of them.

Music education of Zhytomyr in terms of the creative period of Victor Kosenko in the city (dedicated to the 125th anniversary of his birth)

The purpose of the article is to study the music education of Zhytomyr on the eve and during the creative path in the specified city of Viktor Kosenko. Research methodology. The methodology of work is based on the application of analytical, systematic, biographical methods, which revealed the place and significance of the figure of V. Kosenko in the development of the musical culture of Zhytomyr during the life and work of the composer in this place in 1918-1929. Features of tendencies in the educational musical movement of that period, in particular, sociocultural and artistic factors of formation of music education and its positioning in the context of musical life of the specified period. The scientific novelty of the article is that for the first time the level of development of music education in Zhytomyr during the stay of the famous composer V. Kosenko (1918-1929) was analyzed and evaluated, which influenced the further development of educational and cultural branches of Zhytomyr region. Conclusions. The article outlines the peculiarities of music education in Zhytomyr on the eve and during the period of creativity in the city of Viktor Kosenko. It is established that at the beginning of the last century Zhytomyr was one of the important cultural and educational centers of the Right Bank of Ukraine, where there were schools and gymnasiums, theological and teacher's seminaries, as well as dozens of educational institutions of various specializations. It was found that one of the first in Ukraine in Zhytomyr opened a public library, theater, and cinemas. It was found out that the stay in Zhytomyr was a unique opportunity for V. Kosenko to be in Ukrainian (and not Russian or Polish) center (after Warsaw and St. Petersburg, where the urban cultural tradition prevailed, oriented differently) (not only Ukrainian but also European culture). It was important for Ukrainian music to position itself as European, and for the composer to have a kind of shelter from the control of the Soviet government, he had the opportunity to delve into himself, to find his own style.

THE IMPORTANCE OF 1959-1967 PERIOD IN JAZZ HISTORY

The focus of this study is on the history of jazz music between 1959 and 1967. The 1950s was a period of intense creativity in jazz, defined by emerging styles such as third stream, cool jazz and hard bop. The end of that decade, 1959, is considered to be a watershed year in which some of jazz’s most influential recordings were made and also effected the free jazz movement, which dominated until 1967, known as the "year that jazz music died". Therefore, 1959 becomes a bridge between the stylistic homogeneity of first half of the century and an outpouring of creativity in the second half. The echoes of the pre-fusion period 1959-1967 are still influential on the musical output of jazz in the twenty first century. This study aims to convey the variety of jazz styles between 1950 and 1967 by looking at the foundational elements that create the musical understanding of these styles by means of a descriptive methodology. Keywords: Jazz, Free Jazz, Hard Bop, 1959, Third Stream, Cool Jazz, Avant-Garde

Вплив Арнольда Шенберга на музичну стилістику XX–XXI століття Лебідь Юлія Вплив Арнольда Шенберга на музичну стилістику XX–XXI століття

The article analyzes the specifics of Arnold Schoenberg's creative method. Attention is paid to the periodization of his work. Schoenberg was not the first composer, who invents the dodecaphonic technique, but he gave it a complete and logical expression. The arrival of the dodecaphonic system was not a certain experiment or coincidence. It is part of a natural process that resulted from the gradual transformation of the composer's worldview. The composer in some works that belong to the late period of creativity, combining elements of different styles, without striving to adhere to a single style. This factor further confirms the thesis that in the foreground for Schoenberg, was the artistic truth and authenticity of the statement. A. Schoenberg is convinced that only a composer who has a large auditory baggage can turn to the dodecaphonic method, because the use of dodecaphony introduces many restrictions. It is determined that the exclusive role of Schoenberg is to form a school whose representatives worked in a single direction. Among his students, it is worth mentioning, in addition to A. Webern and A. Berg, also Ernst Kshenek, Egon Welles, Hans Eisler, Stefania Turkevich. The formation of dodecaphonic technique, its design within the activities of representatives of the Novoviden school, occured simultaneously with the work of other composers. It is emphasized that the technique of twelve sounds was introduced at the same time by by the Ukrainian composer Yu. Golyshev. The leading importance of dodecaphonic technique for further academic art is emphasized. The systematic activity - theoretical, compositional and teaching of A. Schoenberg, allowed the dodecaphonic technique to become a model that other creators have already tried at their own discretion. The dodecaphonic technique used by many composers of the Western European tradition, as well as by Ukrainian artists, in particular V. Silvestrov, L. Grabovsky and Yu. Ishchenko.

І. Stravinsky’s orchestral writing of Neo-Classical and serial (late) periods: comparative analysis

Statement of the problem. Neo-Classical and serial (late) periods of I. Stravinsky’s creativity are marked by the shifts in his musical language, which found their reflection in his orchestral writing. “Universals” of style and genre (term of Savenko (2001: 105–163) retain their relevancy. Constant principles of orchestral writing (multi-figure composition, combinatorics and plastique) are used in different combinations. Analysis of recent research and publications. While there are numerous studies devoted to I. Stravinsky’s Neo-Classical and serial (late) periods, no works have composer’s orchestral thinking and orchestral writing as an object of special examination. Thus, scarce studies regarding aspects of composer’s orchestration become even more valuable: about orchestral texture (Schnittke, 1967; Schnittke, 1973, Savenko, 2001; Kashyrtsev, 2020), or interpretation of timbres (Savenko, 2001; Savenko, 2011, Kashyrtsev, 2020), or interconnection of orchestral and harmonically-modal thinking (Gurkov, 1987), or editions (Timofeev, 2014; Timofeev, 2019). The purpose of this article is an examination of specifics of I. Stravinsky’s orchestral writing from the standpoint of peculiarity of application of constant principles of orchestral writing (multi-figure composition, combinatorics and plastique) in the ballet “Jeu de cartes” and the Variations (Aldous Huxley in Memoriam). The novelty of the article is caused by: 1)reveal of beforementioned principles; 2) examination of their existence in evolutionary perspective; 3) bringing attention to relevant problems of orchestration in I. Stravinsky’s works of Neo-Classical and late periods of creativity; 4) formulation of original scholarly definition of the term “orchestral writing”. Methods. In this article stylistic method is used – to study evolutionary processes of composer’s style in dialectic unity of constant and innovative; functional – to examine specifics of functional organisation of orchestral texture; comparative – to reveal different ways in which constant principles of orchestral writing are used on different stages of composer’s evolution. Results and Conclusions. Constant principles of orchestral writing (multifigure composition, combinatorics and plastique), which have already emerged in the primary period, are present in the works of Neo-Classical and late periods in different configurations of their relations. In the ballet “Jeu de cartes” multi-figure composition loses its role in comparison to the early works and is applied hidden due to: 1) motive variants (with the motives being stressed by timbre, texture or register); 2) textural complementarity (which means that multiple figures are used in timbrally-textural algorithm); 3) creation of “protracted” melody, in which the role of motivic “formula” is reduced (which is typical for I. Stravinsky’s Neo-Classical period). At the same time, continuity emerging in Neo-Classical works meets the tendency towards discretion due to influence of such principles as combinatorics and plastique, which retain their relevancy, being realised in different variants in the conditions of functional “clarity” of a texture, as it is a trait of composer’s Neo-Classical musical idiom. The orchestral writing of the Variations (Aldous Huxley in Memoriam) is defined by the principle of combinatorics with the usage of plastique. Serial technique contributed to its reveal. At the same time, the role of multi-figure composition is reduced to a bare minimum, which was caused by rejection of melodic “formularity”.

Концепт земля у художній публіцистиці В. Яворівського

V. Yavorivsky's artistic journalism can be divided into two periods according to the real chronotope, the first of which includes works published in the 70-90s of the XX century, the second collection of modern journalism, written in the late XX - early XXI century. . The concept of land in V. Yavorivsky's essays is one of the main ones, which is primarily due to the subject matter of the works. Most often, the concept of the earth is created with the help of this token and this definition, cozy, beautiful, wonderful, and so on. The earth for the publicist has colour and taste, a smell, carries heat. Ukrainian land appears as a family history, as a museum. In the essays of the second period of creativity, the concept of land first of all appears as a territory inhabited by the Ukrainian people. V. Yavorivsky endows it with such conceptual features as God's, Ukrainian, our, patriotic, native, own, Zaporozhian, father. For the writer, land is first of all a territory, which is one of the features of the state.

Comparative Analysis of Reasoning in Russian Classic Poetry

The paper considers the pragmatic textual level and focuses on peculiarities of reasoning realized in the lyric verses written by the representatives of Russian classic poetry. The investigated material of poetic texts includes the verses written by A.K. Tolstoy, K.K. Sluchevsky, and I.F. Annensky. The purposes of the study involve adapting the rhetorical structure theory (RST) to poetic texts, annotating these texts, searching for regularities of poetic reasoning specific to the considered authors. Applying RST to poetic texts was a novel task; the lack of experience made it necessary to adapt the method, that is, to elaborate the adequate set of rhetorical relations and to specify two sets of criteria: segmenting a text and identifying the relations. The resulting set of relations consists of 34 items. After annotating the texts in terms of the adopted RST, several lines of comparison were the objects of investigation. They include collating the frequency spectrums of relations and the semantical groups of relations for the three authors, as well as comparing two periods of creativity for A.K. Tolstoy and K.K. Sluchevsky. The results of the comparative investigation revealed certain regularities both in the distribution of isolated relations and the distribution of semantically grouped relations.

Age of Genius or Century of Revolution? Russian Culture and Power Across the High-Low Divide, 1850–1950

Abstract This article discusses Jeffrey Brooks’ metaphor of an integrated ecosystem to describe Russian cultural history in the late imperial and early Soviet periods. Brooks’s Firebird and the Fox describes an interlocking cultural system marked by high-low interactions, as a rich Russian folkloric tradition based on fable and popular tales was reworked with remarkable creativity in what he calls an “age of genius.” In response, this article argues that this period of Russian cultural creativity can be seen as coinciding with the extended life-cycle of the Russian Revolution. The subversive, satirical humor and irony running through Brooks’s cultural “play-sphere” was complemented by another tradition: a didactic, instructional, enlightening “teach-sphere” that animated a wide range of intelligentsia and cultural forces shaping cultural evolution and cultural revolution. If the play-sphere highlights the rebellious distance between culture and power, the teach-sphere’s project of transforming the masses reveals their many commonalities. The essay reflects on how the intersections of culture and power shaped early Soviet culture, the avant-garde, and successive phases of Stalinist culture. While Socialist Realism promoted the theoretical declaration of a unified socialist culture, the persistence of differing elements of the cultural system raises the question of Soviet cultural syncretism.

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ СОНАТНИХ ЦИКЛІВ СЕРЕДНЬОГО ПЕРІОДУ ТВОРЧОСТІ Л. ВАН БЕТХОВЕНА

The article is devoted to the analysis of Beethoven’s piano work, and more specifically to the sonatas of the middle period of creativity. The study provides a detailed analysis of the sonata cycles, Op. 26, 27, 31. The main purpose of the work is to study modifications, which the composer brought to the sonata cycle. The article uses methods of analysis, synthesis, analogy and biographical context. The results obtained allow us to state the composer’s dissatisfaction with the canons of the structure of the sonata cycle. He was constantly looking for new means of expression to embody his creative potential. At the beginning of his search, he decided to diminish the role of the sonata form in the sonata cycle. For example, sonatas No. 12, 13 are absolutely unique in their structure. These are sonatas without a shitty sign of a sonata cycle: a movement that is written in sonata form. With these extraordinary sonatas, Beethoven opens a new, experimental section of his work. In Sonata No. 12, he for the first time introduces a sonata cycle, a part written in the genre of a funeral march. In the future, a part written in the genre of a funeral march will be used by many composers of the era of romanticism (for example F. Chopin in Sonata #2, P.Tchaikovsky in Symphony #6). Sonata No. 13 (Sonata quasi una fantasia) is the first of the composer’s sonatas where the division into parts is rather arbitrary. This structure will be typical for many of Robert Schumann’s works. In the sonata cycles, Op. 31 Beethoven, on the contrary, increases the number of partsin the sonata cycle written in sonata form. In this cycle, the composer found a way to further modify the sonata form. Sonata No. 18 was the first in which one can feel the structure of a sonata cycle in two parts (which will become characteristic of Beethoven in the future). The article analyzes the ways of modifying the sonata cycle in Beethoven’s work, shows the connection between the composer’s personal experiences and the figurative content of the sonatas of this period. This work will help to better get acquainted with the different content of the works of the middle period of the composer’s work for a better understanding and performance.

Sharon Weill, Kim Thuy Seelinger, and Kerstin Bree Carlson (editors), The President on Trial: Prosecuting Hissène Habré

For a time, the creation of international criminal justice institutions seemed to follow a predictable and linear path. Following a long period of inactivity after the post-World War II trials, there was a burst of creation starting in 1993 with the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), followed by the establishment of a series of ad hoc international or hybrid tribunals for Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and Cambodia.1 The culmination of this creative period was the International Criminal Court (ICC), the first permanent international criminal court, established by the Rome Statute in 1998 and ratified by the required 60 states that would allow the court to come into existence by 2002. The ICC seemed to offer a simple and comprehensive solution to the expensive and impractical problem of trying to establish an ad hoc tribunal following each new atrocity. It obligated states to investigate and...