Food Cravings Research Articles

Intense craving for eat: standardization of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-State in Mexico

Intense craving for eat: standardization of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-State in Mexico

Long-term hair cortisone and perceived stress are associated with long-term hedonic eating tendencies in patients with obesity

IntroductionLong-term biological stress, reflected in hair cortisol and cortisone levels, predicts future weight gain and metabolic deterioration. This is likely at least partially mediated by glucocorticoid-induced increases in hedonic overeating. Yet, the relationship between long-term biological stress and long-term hedonic eating tendencies remains to be elucidated. MethodsWe included N=108 adults with lifestyle-induced obesity (91 women, median body-mass-index=38.4 kg/m2) for our primary analysis investigating cross-sectional associations between long-term biological stress (hair cortisol and cortisone measured in the first 3 cm of scalp hair using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry) and self-reported long-term hedonic eating tendencies (emotional and external eating, ‘Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire’, and trait food craving, ‘Food Craving Questionnaire-Trait’). In secondary analyses, we investigated the moderating role of long-term psychological stress (Perceived Stress Scale-14 score) on the relation between hair glucocorticoid levels and hedonic eating tendencies. ResultsHigher hair cortisone levels, but not higher hair cortisol levels, were associated with more food cravings after adjustment for sex and age (p<0.05). The association remained significant after additional adjustment for psychological stress (p<0.05). Psychological stress correlated positively with food craving and hedonic eating (p<0.05), and, in trend, with external eating (p<0.1). Stratification of stress groups (high vs. low psychological stress in addition to high vs. low biological stress) showed food cravings and emotional eating to be highest in the group with both high psychological-stress and high hair-cortisone (p<0.05), suggesting potential additive effects of different stress measures. ConclusionLong-term psychological and biological stress correlate with hedonic eating tendencies with potentially adverse additive effects on weight management and clinical features of obesity.

Validity and reliability study of the Turkish adaptation of the Food Craving Acceptance and Action Questionnaire

Background: The aim of this study is to evaluate the validity and reliability of the Food Craving Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (FAAQ) in university students. Methods: The study included 394 undergraduate students at Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University. The study included individuals who volunteered to participate, were at least 18 years old, and did not have any severe psychological issues. Explanatory and confirmatory factor analyses of the scale were conducted by dividing the data set into two groups. Cronbach’s α coefficient was analyzed and a test-retest was conducted with 94 students. Results: It was determined that the Food Craving Acceptance and Action Questionnaire had 2 factors (acceptance and willingness). The fit values of the scale were found to be CMIN/df=2.26; GFI=0.92; AGFI=0.87; CFI=0.85; RMSEA=0.08. The acceptance, willingness subscales and total Cronbach α coefficients of the scale were 0.761, 0.716 and 0.761, respectively. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values were 0.84, 0.81 and 0.80 for acceptance, willingness and total scale score, respectively. Statistically significant negative correlations were found between the ‘acceptance’, ‘willingness’ subscale and total DEBQ, FCQ-T scores, subscale scores and mYFAS 2.0 symptom count (P&lt;0.05). Conclusion: The FAAQ was found to have a two-factor structure and the fit values were found to be within the acceptable range. The age range for university students is considered to be that of adults, and this scale can also be applied to adults in general.

Does Eating Disorders and Flexible Dietary Control Effects the Food Craving Arise?

It is a hypothesis often thought that food craving may be associated with particularly strict dietary control. However, it is often not thought that a similar situation can be associated with flexible diet control, and even that it can even lead to eating disorder. Therefore, research on flexible diet control and food craving has been very limited to date.

Alterations in taste preferences one year following sleeve gastrectomy, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, and one anastomosis gastric bypass: a cross-sectional study

The influence of metabolic and bariatric surgery (MBS) on taste preferences and the pleasurable aspects of appetite may be mediated through its effects on gut hormones, potentially affecting weight loss results. Research indicates that the nature of the MBS performed significantly impacts food cravings in the year following the procedure, with no clear relationship to psychological factors or pre-surgery eating behaviors. During the period from August 2021 to August 2022, a group of adult patients with a body mass index (BMI) of 40 kg/m2 or above, or 35 kg/m2 or above with obesity-related medical complications, underwent Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), one-anastomosis gastric bypass (OAGB), or sleeve gastrectomy (SG) at a tertiary academic center focused on MBS. This research included 294 patients who completed the Taste Desire and Enjoyment Change Questionnaire (TDECQ) one year after their surgical procedures, which were primary RYGB, OAGB, or SG. Most participants noted changes in their taste perception, cravings, and enjoyment of flavors after undergoing SG, RYGB, and OAGB. The study’s findings suggest that the type of MBS significantly affects taste preferences. Additionally, RYGB and OAGB were associated with a more substantial decrease in the craving for sweet and fatty flavors relative to SG.

The only constant is change: Stable vs. variable aspects of food approach bias relate differently to food craving and intake

The tendency to approach food faster than to avoid it (i.e., approach bias) is thought to facilitate food intake, particularly foods that conflict with one's dietary goals. However, this relationship has been difficult to demonstrate, which ties into an ongoing debate about whether such cognitive-behavioral biases represent stable traits or fluctuating states. We thus investigated the temporal fluctuations of food approach bias (1), its within-participant association with food craving (2) and intake (3), and the role of top-down control in this bias-intake association (4). The 76 participants completed an impulsivity questionnaire and performed a smartphone-based approach-avoidance task on nine days. Every day, they also reported their daily craving, intake, and dietary intentions for 12 personalized foods they wanted to eat less or more often over the study period. Approach bias varied considerably within individuals (1), and correlated in unexpected ways with food craving (2) and intake (3); this association of approach bias with intake was moderated by inter-individual differences (rather than day-to-day fluctuations) in dietary intentions and impulsivity (4). Results emphasize the need to re-conceptualize approach bias as comprising both state and trait components, and indicate that the more trait-like aspects of top-down control gate the relationship of approach bias with intake. The large day-to-day variation in approach bias may explain why single-session bias measures often do not predict distal outcomes like body weight. Furthermore, our results suggest that interventions targeting approach bias may be most effective for certain timepoints (high-risk situations) and individuals (those with weak dietary intentions).

Somatic and mental symptoms associated with dysglycaemia, diabetes-related complications and mental conditions in people with diabetes: Assessments in daily life using continuous glucose monitoring and ecological momentary assessment.

To analyse the potential drivers (glucose level, complications, diabetes type, gender, age and mental health) of diabetes symptoms using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and ecological momentary assessment. Participants used a smartphone application to rate 25 diabetes symptoms in their daily lives over 8 days. These symptoms were grouped into four blocks so that each symptom was rated six times on 2 days (noon, afternoon and evening). The symptom ratings were associated with the glucose levels for the previous 2 hours, measured with CGM. Linear mixed-effects models were used, allowing for nested random effects and the conduct of N = 1 analysis of individual associations. In total, 192 individuals with type 1 diabetes and 179 with type 2 diabetes completed 6380 app check-ins. Four symptoms showed a significant negative association with glucose values, indicating higher ratings at lower glucose (speech difficulties, P = .003; coordination problems, P = .00005; confusion, P = .049; and food cravings, P = .0003). Four symptoms showed a significant positive association with glucose values, indicating higher scores at higher glucose (thirst, P = .0001; urination, P = .0003; taste disturbances, P = .021; and itching, P = .0120). There were also significant positive associations between microangiopathy and eight symptoms. Elevated depression and diabetes distress were associated with higher symptom scores. N = 1 analysis showed highly idiosyncratic associations between symptom reports and glucose levels. The N = 1 analysis facilitated the creation of personalized symptom profiles related to glucose levels with consideration of factors such as complications, gender, body mass index, depression and diabetes distress. This approach can enhance precision monitoring for diabetes symptoms in precision medicine.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A New Possibility in Obesity Treatment

Obesity is a major public health challenge and results from the complex interaction of many etiopathogenetic factors. However, food-related hedonic stimuli and poor inhibitory control often appear to be specific maintenance factors, and conventional treatments are sometimes ineffective. Transcranial magnetic stimulation is emerging as a promising treatment option. Targeting specific brain regions, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, was found to be effective in modulating acute food craving and improving cognitive control. This review traces the evolution and development of transcranial magnetic stimulation and presents the results of recent randomized clinical trials conducted in obese subjects. These suggest that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and deep transcranial magnetic stimulation may be effective in reducing body weight, BMI and food cravings. The neural circuits involved and the underlying mechanisms of action of this neurostimulation technique are also reviewed. Finally, outstanding questions and future research directions are identified to further understand and develop this promising therapy.

Exploration of Food Attitudes and Management of Eating Behavior from a Psycho-Nutritional Perspective.

This study investigates the relationship between food attitudes and the management of eating behavior from a psycho-nutritional perspective, with a focus on the Health Belief Model (HBM). The objective was to explore how emotional food cravings influence different aspects of eating behavior and dietary attitudes, and to identify indirect pathways through which these cravings affect attitudes toward dieting behaviors. Data were collected from 659 participants using validated scales that assessed dieting tendencies, bulimia and food preoccupation, culinary behaviors, food preoccupation, expectations of positive outcomes, and emotional food cravings. Descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlations, and network analysis were employed to uncover significant associations among these variables. A sequential mediation analysis was conducted using SPSS PROCESS Macro Model 6 to identify indirect pathways. The analysis revealed significant associations among the variables. Emotional food craving had a negative indirect effect on dieting attitudes through bulimia tendencies (effect size: -0.523) and a positive indirect effect through food preoccupation (effect size: 0.1006). These results highlight the complex interplay between emotional food cravings, bulimia tendencies, and food preoccupation in shaping dieting attitudes. The findings emphasize the complex dynamic between emotional food cravings, bulimia tendencies, and food preoccupation, and their collective impact on dieting attitudes. This study provides insights into potential intervention strategies aimed at improving eating habits by addressing emotional food cravings and their indirect effects on dietary behavior.

Tackling Cravings in Medical Weight Management: An Update on Pathophysiology and an Integrated Approach to Treatment

Background/Objectives: Food cravings involve a strong drive to consume palatable foods irrespective of nutritional status. Importantly, cravings contribute substantially to the obesity epidemic. Managing hunger alone is insufficient for weight management as this relates only to homeostatic eating and does not address the complex aetiology of hedonic eating and its crucial role in food cravings. Medical weight management clinics and anti-obesity medication trials do not routinely identify and address food cravings. Methods: We conducted a narrative review of the literature consisting of 115 peer-reviewed articles (original articles and reviews). We included articles focused on food craving pathophysiology, assessment, and management strategies providing contrasts against the current medical model of weight management seen in obesity pharmacotherapy trials as well as the current standard of practise. Results: We outline the neurohormonal and psychological drivers of cravings, which lead to a spectrum of eating behaviours, from comfort food eating to binge eating disorders. We provide an overview of ways of identification and measurement options, including their strengths and weaknesses, and an overview of management strategies and their cravings control efficacy, spanning lifestyle modifications like nutrition and sleep, psychological therapies (i.e., cognitive behavioural therapy [CBT], acceptance-based therapies such as mindfulness) and, last but not least, medications that not only are approved for weight reduction but reduce cravings. Finally, based on these findings, we provide a proposed integrated and iterative model that is able to evolve and adapt to the individual over time in tackling cravings for long-term weight loss maintenance. Conclusions: The findings emphasise the importance of cravings management and provide a synthesis on how cravings can be identified in a medical weight management setting, which can be practically implemented in an integrated iterative model spanning anti-obesity medications that have craving control data to evidence-based lifestyle and psychological interventions.

Food craving, vitamin A, and menstrual disorders: A comprehensive study on university female students.

Menstrual disorders, influenced by dietary habits like high fat intake and low fruit and vegetable consumption, are a global public health issue. This study assessed the prevalence of dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), and irregular menstrual cycle (IMC) among female university students in Bangladesh, focusing on food cravings and low vitamin A intake as risk factors. In this comprehensive study, data from randomly selected female university students were collected using a structured questionnaire. The associations were analyzed through chi-square tests and multivariable logistic regression, reported as adjusted odds ratios (AOR). The most prevalent menstrual disorder was dysmenorrhea (68.3%) followed by PMS (33.8%), and IMC (24.3%). Food cravers for high-fat and sweet foods were likely to experience dysmenorrhea (AOR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.5-3.9, P<0.001), suffer from PMS (AOR: 3.9, 95% CI: 2.3-6.6, P<0.001), and have IMC (AOR: 3.0, 95% CI: 1.6-5.3, P<0.001) vs. subjects who didn't. Subjects consuming vitamin A-rich plant foods had 40% (AOR: 0.6, 95% CI: 0.4-0.9, P < 0.01) and 60% (AOR: 0.4, 95% CI: 0.2-0.6, P<0.001) less likely suffering from dysmenorrhea and IMC vs. who didn't. Both underweight and overweight/obese subjects experienced more than 2-fold dysmenorrhea vs. normal-weight peers. The chance of IMC was nearly 3-fold among overweight/obese subjects. However, lower physical activity was associated with PMS and IMC whereas family history was associated with dysmenorrhea and PMS. Among the socio-demographic factors, maternal education, place of residence, and earlier menarche (≤12 years) were associated with dysmenorrhea while marital status was associated with IMC. This study indicates that increasing the intake of vitamin A-rich plant foods and reducing high-fat, sweet foods can lower the risk of dysmenorrhea and IMC. Additionally, it highlights the need for regular exercise to mitigate the increased risk of PMS and IMC.

Motor impulsivity and spicy food craving: A mediation analysis of insula-based resting state functional connectivity.

In China, the rate of spicy food consumption is rising, and chili pepper is among the most popular spicy foods consumed nationwide. However, little effort has been made to understand the mechanism behind spicy food craving. This exploratory study aimed to investigate differences in insula-based resting state functional connectivity (rsFC) between spicy food cravers and non-cravers, and the association between rsFC, impulsivity and spicy food craving. A group of extreme cravers (n = 49) and a group of age- and sex-matched non-cravers (n = 46) completed a resting-state fMRI scan, during which participants were instructed to keep their eyes closed, to not think of anything in particular, and to remain awake. Participants completed the Spicy Food Craving Questionnaire, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Sensation Seeking Scale and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and rated the frequency of spicy food intake. Results revealed increased insula-occipital lobe resting-state functional connectivity in individuals with spicy food cravings, and the positive correlations between insula-middle occipital gyrus rsFC, impulsivity and spicy food craving. Specifically, the insula-middle occipital gyrus rsFC strength mediated the relationship between the motor impulsivity and spicy food craving. It is hoped that our exploratory findings may shed new insights into the neural mechanisms of spicy food craving and motivate further exploration of spicy food craving in diverse contexts and cultures.

Efficacy of Dichrostachys Glomerata Supplementation on Overweight and Mildly Obese Adult’s Weight, Mood, and Health-Related Quality of Life: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial

Despite their widespread use, research is needed to evaluate the weight loss and related health/wellness outcomes of herbal plants. Preliminary research found that the fruit of Dichrostachys glomerata is safe and has potential weight loss effects. This study aimed to examine the effect of a standardized powder of D. glomerata fruit pods (DYG-400®) on weight, food cravings, mood, and health-related quality of life of overweight and mildly obese adults. In this CONSORT-compliant double-blind placebo-controlled trial, 56 adults (Mean [M] age = 44.50, M [body mass index] BMI = 31.66) were randomized to either the D. glomerata Group (DG; 300 mg/d) or Placebo Group (PG; rice protein, 300 mg/d) for 60 days. Participants weight was assessed along with self-report assessments of the Food Cravings Questionnaire, CDC Health-related Quality of Life, Perceived Stress Scale, Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Profile of Mood States at Baseline, Day 30, and Day 60. The data were collected from March 2023 to June 2023 and stored electronically, and analyzed using general linear models with repeated measures. DG lost more weight at Day 60 compared to PG, p = .05 (4.11 vs. 2.19 lbs). DG had reduced food cravings from Baseline to Day 30 and Day 60 compared to PG, p < .001. Perceived stress, p < .001, and mood, p = .017, improved from Baseline to Day 60 for DG compared to PG. Anxiety decreased from Baseline to Day 60 for DG and from Baseline to Day 30 for PG, p < .001. Health-related Quality of Life improved for DG compared to PG, p < .001. D. glomerata (DYG-400®) may be an effective herbal intervention to promote weight loss and health. Extended clinical trials across diverse populations and settings are needed. Clinical trial registry number and website: ISRCTN10099861, https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN10099861.

Development and preliminary validation of a modified Food Craving Inventory for Pregnancy (FCI-P) in U.S. military active-duty Service women

Food cravings during pregnancy are highly common, yet no measure of cravings has been validated among pregnant women. The current study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Food Craving Inventory (FCI) for use during pregnancy. U.S. military active-duty Service women (N = 192; 29.5 ± 3.8 years old; 44% Army, 36% Air Force, 15% Navy, and 4% Marine Corps) were recruited from the community at 12–27 weeks' gestation. Participants completed a modified version of the FCI validated for adults with binge-eating disorder, which included 13 additional items assessing cravings for foods that women commonly report experiencing during pregnancy (e.g., pickles, sour cream, hot or spicy wings). Additional measures also assessed disinhibited eating behaviors (i.e., loss of control eating and emotional eating). A series of confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine model fit for a four-factor structure of: (1) the FCI validated for binge-eating disorder (excluding the pregnancy-oriented food items) and (2) the FCI modified for pregnancy (with the pregnancy-oriented food items added). The previously validated four-factor structure of the FCI for binge-eating disorder demonstrated poor model fit in the current sample of pregnant women. After examining the structure of the FCI modified for pregnancy, several items were removed due to high cross-loading across multiple subscales. The resulting 16-item, four-factor (Fats, Sweets, Carbohydrates, Spicy/Strong foods) FCI for pregnancy (FCI-P) demonstrated generally good model fit (CFI = .95, TLI = .94, SRMR = .04, RMSEA = .09) and good-to-excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's alphas: .83-.96). Convergent validity was supported by significant correlations between the FCI-P scores and the disinhibited eating behavior scores (ps < .001). Results highlight the importance of psychometrically evaluating eating-related measures for use during pregnancy to appropriately capture the potentially unique experiences of the perinatal period.

Emotional food craving across the eating disorder spectrum: an ecological momentary assessment study

PurposeEmotional eating during negative emotions might underlie disordered eating behavior (i.e., binge eating and food restriction). Positive emotions, by contrast, seem to promote healthier eating behavior. Naturalistic research on the links between emotions and eating across individuals with binge-eating disorder (BED), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge-purge anorexia nervosa (AN-BP), and restrictive anorexia nervosa (AN-R) is, however, lacking.MethodsIndividuals without eating disorders (comparison group, CG, n = 85), and patients with BED (n = 41), BN (n = 50), AN-BP (n = 26), and AN-R (n = 29) participated in an ecological momentary assessment study. Six daily notifications over eight days prompted ratings of momentary food craving and emotional states differing in valence and arousal.ResultsResults supported specific emotion-food-craving patterns in each group. Compared to the CG, arousing negative emotions and higher cravings co-occurred in patients with BN. In patients with AN-BP (at trend level also in patients with AN-R) less arousing negative emotions and lower cravings co-occurred. In patients with AN, positive emotions and higher cravings co-occurred whereas in patients with BED less arousing positive emotions and lower cravings co-occurred.ConclusionThe found emotion-craving associations may underlie group-specific (dys-)functional eating behaviors, i.e., binge eating and food restriction during negative emotions in patients with BN and AN, and normalized appetitive responses during positive emotions in patients with BED and AN. Therapeutic efforts could target arousing negative emotions in patients with BN, and less arousing negative emotions in patients with AN. Positive emotions could be used in a salutogenetic approach in patients with BED and AN.

Efficacy of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) in the Treatment of Bulimia Nervosa (BN): A Review and Insight into Potential Mechanisms of Action.

Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a disorder primarily affecting adolescent females, characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors aimed at preventing weight gain, including self-induced vomiting and the misuse of diuretics, laxatives, and insulin. The precise etiology of BN remains unknown, with factors such as genetics, biological influences, emotional disturbances, societal pressures, and other challenges contributing to its prevalence. First-line treatment typically includes pharmacotherapy, which has shown moderate effectiveness. Neuroimaging evidence suggests that altered brain activity may contribute to the development of BN, making interventions that directly target the brain extremely valuable. One such intervention is repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), a non-invasive stimulation technique that has been garnering interest in the medical community for many years. This review explores the use of rTMS in the treatment of BN. Searches were conducted in the PubMed/Medline, ResearchGate, and Cochrane databases. Twelve relevant studies were identified. Analysis of the results from these studies reveals promising findings, particularly regarding key parameters in the pathophysiology of BN. Several studies assessed the impact of rTMS on binge episodes. While some studies did not find significant reductions, most reported decreases in binge eating and purging behaviors, with some cases showing complete remission. Reductions in symptoms of depression and food cravings were also demonstrated. However, results regarding cognitive improvement were mixed. The discussion focused heavily on potential mechanisms of action, including neuromodulation of brain networks, induction of neuroplasticity, impact on serotonergic dysfunction, anti-inflammatory action, and HPA axis modulation. rTMS was found to be a safe intervention with no serious side effects. rTMS in the treatment of BN appears to be a promising intervention that alleviates some symptoms characteristic of the pathophysiology of this disorder. An additional effect is a significant reduction in depressive symptoms. However, despite these findings, further research is required to confirm its effectiveness and elucidate the mechanisms of action. It is also recommended to further investigate the potential mechanisms of action described in this review.

212 - Understanding Food Cravings in the treatment of obesity: Pathophysiology and available treatment options

212 - Understanding Food Cravings in the treatment of obesity: Pathophysiology and available treatment options

How can imaginal retraining for modifying food craving be improved?

Imaginal retraining (IR) is an emerging intervention technique in which people imagine avoidance behaviors towards imagined foods or other substances, such as throwing them away. Although IR shows promise in reducing initial craving for a range of substances, including alcohol and tobacco, effects appear less robust for craving for energy-dense foods. This raises the question of how IR for food craving can be improved. Here, we address this question informed by emerging findings from IR dismantling studies and the field of regular cognitive bias modification training paradigms. Based on current insights, we suggest the most optimal ‘craving-reduction’ effects for energy-dense food can likely be expected for IR that includes an overt motor movement. While it is not yet clear what movement works best for food, we suggest a tailored movement or Go/No-Go-based stop movement has the potential to be most effective. The most likely mechanism in reducing craving is cue-devaluation of trained vivid craving images regarding specific energy-dense food products. Future work is needed that investigates and assess the underlying mechanisms (e.g., updating beliefs; cue-devaluation), task characteristics (e.g., IR instructions; specific motor movements) and individual characteristics (e.g., perceived craving; vividness of food imagination) that determine IR effects.

Feeding Ethology of the Domestic Dog (Canis familiaris) Correlates with the Phenomenon of Classical Conditioning

Aim: Feeding ethology of Canis familiaris is closely related to their overall health and wellbeing. Domestic dog (Canis familiaris) acquire behaviors, attitudes, ideas and new knowledge through the process of learning. This learning can occur through both conscious and unconscious pathways. One of those unconscious methods of learning in case of Canis familiaris is classical conditioning. It is a learning process in which learning occurs by association. It is a process of learning in which an automatic, conditioned response is paired with a specific stimuli and the dog’s innate reflexes are conditioned to react to subtle signals. Over time, the dog learns to associate the subtle signal with the specific event. This phenomenon has been well-illustrated in the Pavlov’s experiment. Conclusion: The unconditioned response in this experiment was the dog salivating for food and the conditioned stimulus was the stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. In this case, the conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell for the dog to have its food and the conditioned response was the salivation caused in the dog. Eventually, the dog could associate the ringing of the bell with the food and would salivate at the sound of the bell alone. However, classical conditioning describes how environmental stimuli such as advertisements of food can activate physiological and psychological responses in a dog causing cravings for food and increased salivation. Thus the body of Canis familiaris adapts itself to the given conditioned reflex and expects food exactly at the same time everyday.

Nondietary psychological app program leads to sustained weight loss due to trained physiological satiety perception.

Obese people are mostly unable to maintain successful weight loss after the end of a dietary change. One reason is that conventional weight reduction concepts neglect physiological hunger and satiety perception, leading to a relapse to previous eating habits on the long run. We examined the long-term efficacy of a psychological smartphone weight loss program, which avoids any dietary instructions and aims at relearning of satiety perception. Parameters of body weight alterations and psychological features, for example, satiety perception, food cravings, and emotional eating, were explored in a nonrandomized experimental study comprising 75 obese participants. Measurements occurred at baseline, two times during program application, as well as at 6- and 12-month follow-up. Participants displayed significant weight loss during the entire study period (p = .029) and showed an improved body composition at the 6-month follow-up (p = .018). These effects were associated with increased satiety perception, as well as reduced food cravings, and emotional eating habits. Notably, all improvements in measured parameters significantly sustained between the end of the program and the 12-month follow-up (p < .005 for all). Psychological relearning of satiety perception may outclass dietary approaches in terms of long-term efficiency.