Crash Test Results Research Articles

Nonlinear dynamic finite element analysis of vehicle impacts into road restraint systems

Despite that the safety of cars is continuously increasing, improving the safety of road transportation remains a key issue of modern society. The design of suitable road restraint systems plays an important role. As the tests of barriers are technically demanding and expensive, and road traffic intensity is continuously growing, it is crucial to develop advanced models that would make it possible to explore various scenarios under which road vehicles may accidently impact into the road restraint barrier. The submitted study focuses on the use of nonlinear dynamic finite element analysis (NLDFEA) in the reliability assessment of road restraint systems, with a particular focus on steel barriers subjected to impacts by heavy vehicles. The outcomes of theoretical analyses are compared with the results in a compiled unique database of full-scale road barrier impact test results. It appears that a good match between crash test results and the validated NLDFEA model can be achieved, differences being mostly within a range of 10 %. When modelling the crashes of buses and HGVs, it is particularly important to model correctly shape and geometry of the front and impacting side of the vehicle, tyre sizes, wheelbase and overall truck dimensions, and position of the centre of gravity of the vehicle including trailer and cargo. Recommendations for subsequent research studies and for practical applications are finally provided.

Crash analysis of glass mat thermoplastic (GF/PA6) tubes considering splaying failure mode and energy absorption

Glass mat thermoplastic tubes are potential materials for improving crashworthiness owing to their excellent crash energy absorption capability due to their splaying failure mode of glass mat thermoplastic tubes, which must be considered in the crash analysis to accurately predict their crash performance. This study investigates the crash analysis of glass-mat thermoplastic composite tubes to realize the splaying failure mode and crash energy absorption capability. We evaluated the mechanical properties and fracture toughness of advanced glass mat thermoplastics, termed multi-layered hybrid mats, and employed the result in a 3D Hashin-type continuum damage model implemented with a user material subroutine. For the crash analysis of glass mat thermoplastic tubes, a three-dimensional finite element (FE) model, including cohesive elements in the middle layer of the tube to simulate the splaying failure mode, was constructed. In addition, in the process of the efficient FE modeling of the crash tube, the fracture toughness correction factor was proposed and optimized to calibrate the energy absorption in conjunction with crash test results, as interlaminar fracture modeling causes a difference in energy absorption between the actual test and simulation. As a result, the proposed crash analysis predicted the energy absorption capacity and a splaying failure mode of glass-mat thermoplastic tubes, demonstrating strong concordance with experimental results.

Effect of Chain-Link Fence Attachment on the Crash Performance of an H1 Containment Level Safety Barrier

Longitudinal barriers are among the road safety equipment used to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway. These systems are designed to be lightweight for economic reasons without compromising their structural adequacy. In this study, the effect of chain-link fence on impact severity and structural performance of a longitudinal barrier was investigated through finite element (FE) analyses. An H1 containment level longitudinal barrier FE model was validated using real crash test results. After modifying the validated system to reduce its weight, crash test simulations (TB11 and TB42) were conducted on the modified system, both with and without chain-link fence attachment. The chain-link fence was placed below the rail and in traffic side of post, in a manner that had not been applied before. FE analyses found that the chain-link fence minimally altered TB11 test performance. In TB42 simulations without a chain-link fence, the vehicle climbed over the rail, resulting in test failure. However, when chain-link fence is used, same barrier contained and redirected the vehicle, leading to a successful test. It was concluded that using chain-link fences can enhance the crash performance of longitudinal barriers by limiting the barrier lateral deformation. Further detailed studies, supported by real crash tests, on the placement of fences in barriers are recommended.

Study of Vehicle-Based Metrics for Assessing the Severity of Side Impacts

<div>A research program has been launched in Iran to develop an evaluation method for comparing the safety performance of vehicles in real-world collisions with crash test results. The goal of this research program is to flag vehicle models whose safety performance in real-world accidents does not match their crash test results. As part of this research program, a metric is needed to evaluate the severity of side impacts in crash tests and real-world accidents. In this work, several vehicle-based metrics were analyzed and calculated for a dataset of more than 500 side impact tests from the NHTSA crash test database. The correlation between the metric values and the dummy injury criteria was studied to find the most appropriate metric with the strongest correlation coefficient values with the dummy injury criteria. Delta-V and a newly created metric <span> <math> <mrow> <mi>T</mi> <msubsup> <mi>K</mi> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mn>0</mn> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mi>Y</mi> </msubsup> </mrow> </math> </span>, which is an indicator of the kinetic energy transferred to occupants in a 200 ms time interval and in the lateral direction, were found to be the most appropriate metric for assessing the crash severity of side impacts with strong correlation coefficients with head injury criteria such as HIC<sub>36</sub> and HIC<sub>15</sub>, resultant spinal acceleration, and moderate correlation coefficients with average rib deflection and abdominal forces. Due to the need to calculate the metric based on EDR measurements, <span> <math> <mrow> <mi>T</mi> <msubsup> <mi>K</mi> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mn>0</mn> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mi>Y</mi> </msubsup> </mrow> </math> </span> was chosen as the side impact severity metric for the research program.</div>

A novel method for the automated simulation of various vehicle collisions to estimate crash severity

Objective: Vehicle collisions are described with the help of collision severity parameters such as energy equivalent speed (EES) and the collision-based change of velocity (delta-v). These serve as an input for injury outcome estimations through injury risk functions (IRF) or for the virtual assessment of active safety systems in case of a modified collision. A novel method was developed with the aim of simulating various vehicle collisions within a short time frame while ensuring the accuracy of the collision severity parameters. Methods: Previously developed three-dimensional EES models were used in this study. They were used to compute 2 D vehicle substitute models, which are deformed during a new, time-discrete method. By using fundamentals of mechanical impact calculation and vehicle kinematics, relevant collision severity parameters are calculated. These steps are executed in an own developed standalone tool named impactEES. The results obtained were verified against measured crash test data from the European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) and the Technical Center of Allgemeiner–Deutscher–Automobil-Club (ADAC). Results: The novel method enables the automated computation of various car-to-car and car-to-object collisions. The output of impactEES includes the deformation area, EES, and delta-v. Furthermore, it includes the following time-discrete data for each vehicle: translational and angular accelerations, translational and angular velocities, and the position of the center of gravity in addition to the heading of the vehicle. Finally, without the need of highly sophisticated hardware, a single simulation of a collision between two vehicles can be calculated within only a few seconds including collision severity parameters. Based on the comparison of measured crash test data and results obtained from impactEES the mean percentage error (MPE) and its standard deviation (SD) were calculated for EES (MPE= − 2.0%, SD = 8.4%, n = 14) and delta-v (MPE= − 1.2%, SD = 14.2%, n = 18). Conclusions: The novel method allows for the 2 D computation of various car-to-car and car-to-object collisions. Using predefined IRF allows the assessment of injury probabilities relative to the change of collision severity parameters. Both can be used for the virtual assessment of injury mitigation capabilities of active safety systems and thus represent an important contribution to its targeted development.

Renewable hybrid roadside barrier: Optimization of timber thickness

Researchers have recently focused on new and original roadside barriers that prioritize aesthetic, and environmental concerns by employing natural materials. In this study, the safety performance (Acceleration Severity Index (ASI), Theorical Head Impact Velocity (THIV)), structural performance (Working Width (W), Exit Angle (α)), and failure analysis (visual deformation) of a newly developed Renewable Hybrid Barrier (RHB) system at different timber thicknesses were tried to be determined by pendulum crash test and Finite Element (FE) models. The FE models were calibrated and validated based on pendulum crash test results, and then the most suitable timber thickness in terms of safety and structural performance was determined via FE analyses. The results revealed that as the timber thickness decreased, the safety parameters, such as ASI and THIV, decreased, thus the barrier safety increased. However, it was observed that the deflection and deformations in the barrier increased as the timber thickness decreased. In this sense, the safest and the most structurally durable barrier was determined through conducting virtual optimization tests. Studies on diversification of the usage areas of natural/renewable materials should be increased in the future.

Multi-objective optimization design of post-soil system for enhanced W-beam guardrail containment performance

In the W-beam guardrail system, the post can provide sufficient lateral force through interaction with the subgrade and can create the necessary containment function by connecting with the W-beam rail panel. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the best embedment depth and section size of two different posts in the same subgrade from the perspectives of maximum lateral force and occupant ridedown acceleration for enhanced the containment performance of guardrail protection system in China. An accurate lateral force measurement method is used for the inertia effect in collision problems. And the exact finite element model of post-soil interaction is built by combining dynamic impact test with detailed finite element study. Then the Genetic algorithm (GA) was used to determine the optimum value of spread and then the GA-RBF was applied to construct the surrogate models of the analytical objective, which increased the accuracy of fitting. Finally, the embedment depth and structure size were obtained using multi-objective genetic algorithm. Full-scale crash test results show that the optimum design results meet the requirements. Through optimization design, W-beam guardrail has been greatly improved, which improves the crash safety of corrugated beam guardrail.

Impact energy and the risk of injury to motorcar occupants in the front-to-side vehicle collision

The effects of a road accident where one vehicle hits its front on the side of another one are explored. In such cases, the impacted vehicle’s side is usually significantly deformed, which causes a risk of serious injury to vehicle occupants. An analysis of the front-to-side collision covers many nonlinear and highly complex processes, especially when it is based on the collision energy balance. For the analysis, a model of a front-to-side motorcar collision and a dummy representing the impacted vehicle’s driver was prepared. The model simulations carried out were supplemented with important experimental test results. The model validation and the drawing of conclusions from research results were based on crash test results. The shares of major components in the front-to-side collision energy balance were determined. The impact energy has been proposed as an alternative predicate of the road accident effects; as a measure of the effects, the risk of injury to vehicle occupant’s head and torso is considered. The model simulations were found to be in good conformity with experimental test results. The research results enabled determining the relation between the side impact energy and the risk of dummy’s head and torso injuries according to the Abbreviated Injury Scale. The relation obtained was approximated using the logit model. This relation helps to reconstruct road accidents and to improve the car side’s passive safety systems. A discussion of the results obtained has shown good consistence between the results of this work and other comparable research results.

Influence of a Lighting Column in the Working Width of a W-Beam Barrier on TB51 Crash Test.

Road equipment, such as, e.g., road safety barriers and lighting columns, are subject to certification according to the EN1317 standard to be allowed for use on European roads. In engineering practice, due to the terrain conditions, there are cases where other road equipment is installed within the working width of road safety barriers. Such situations are not considered during the certification process. Hence, the aim of this study is to analyze the effect of a lighting column installed within the working width of the barrier on the results of the TB51 crash test. The full-scale crash test and numerical simulation of this event were conducted. In the full-scale crash test, as well as in the simulation, the lighting column prevented the barrier’s post from properly disconnecting from the guardrail, which resulted in the barrier failing to restrain and redirect the 13-t bus. The simulation was quantitatively compared to the experiment, where the correlation coefficient of ASI curves equaled 84%. The THIV curves differed significantly between the experiment and the simulation, which is explained within the paper. Next, simulations with and without the lighting column were compared. The ASI and THIV in the simulation without the column were 0.33 and 16.1 km/h, respectively. In the simulation with the column, the ASI and THIV were 0.44 and 17.7 km/h, respectively. The maximum roll angle of the vehicle in the simulation without the column was 2.01° and with the column was 5.96°. The main difference, however, was that the system without the lighting column within the working width of the barrier was capable of properly restraining and redirecting the vehicle. The specific mechanics underlying this behavior are described within the paper.

Оцінка динамічної навантаженості екіпажів моторвагонного поїзда з сис-темою пасивної безпеки при його зіткненні з великим транспортним засо-бом

A topical problem of the home railway transport is motor-car train renewval, speed increase, and safety improvement in accordance with the Ukrainian State Standards DSTU EN 12633 and DSTU EN 15227, which specify the passenger car crashworthiness and passive safety, respectively, in emergency collisions with various obstacles. Relying on the world experience, researchers of the institute of Technical Methanics of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the State Space Agency of Ukraine developed a passive protection concept for home high-speed passenger trains in emergency collisions according to the DSTU EN 15227 requirements, proposals on the passive propection of a home motor-car train head car, lower- and upper-level honeycomb energy-absorbing devoces (EAD 1 and UL EAD, respectively) for the head car front part, and EAD 2 and EAD 3 low-level devices to be installed in intercar connecteions. The upper- and lower-level protective devices for home motor-car trains were developed based on finite-element simulation results using previous experience in the development of a passive protection device for a high-speed passenger locomotive and the results of a successful crash test of its proptotype. For Scenario 3, which chraracterizes a collision of a reference motor-car train at 110 km/h with a 15 t large road vehicle at a railway crossing, a model of a large deformable obstacle (LDO) was developed in compliance with the DSTU EN 15227 requirements. Finite-element models were developed to determine the force characteristics of interaction between the proposed head car passive protection devices and an LDO. The aim of this paper is to determine dynamic loads on a motor-car train equipped with passive protection devices in its collision with a large road vehicle. Based on a mathematical collision model for identical motor-car trains, a mathematical model was developed for a collision of a reference train with a large road vehicle at a railway crossing (Scenario 3) with account for the determined force characteristics of obstacle ? two EAD 1 low-level devices and obstacle ? two UL EAD upper-level devices interaction and the in-collision work of the head car structure. Dynamic loads on the cars of a reference train with a passive safety system (a head car mass of 80 t and intermediate car masses of 50 t or 64 t) were analyzed for its collision by Scenario 3. Two EAD layouts in the head car front part were studied. It was found that the proposed passive protection of the reference train cars meets the DSTU EN 15227 criteria for Scenario 3 for both EAD layouts and the determined variants of lower- and upper-level EAD use according to the intermediate car masses. The proposed mathematical model of dynamic loads on a passenger train with a passive safety system in its collision with a large road vehicle and the results obtained may be used in designing an up-to-date high-speed motor-car train to the DSTU EN 15227 requirements.

Simulation of a Dummy Crash Test in Adams

The article presents a model designed dummy for crash test in ADAMS. The simulated model dummy has dimensions, shapes and mass corresponding to a 50-percentile man. The simulation program allows modification of the dummy parameters. It allows to study the dynamics of motion, distribution of forces and loads of individual parts of the body of the simulated model. The article describes the design process and how to select the appropriate stiffness and damping joints for the simulated dummy. The article contains the results of simulation crash tests performed in the ADAMS program, which were compared to results of the Hybryd III dummy physical crash test. The simulation is designed to reflect the greatest compliance of the movements of individual parts of the human body during the low speed collision.

Frontal impact on a coach, door sub-system numerical modelling

A coach is a heavy load vehicle used for long distances. It is a passenger transport defined as a M3 Class III vehicle. When developing new coach structures, the study of each sub-systems becomes fundamental in order to pre-validate the structure for improved driver and currier safety. In particular, a coach needs a careful study mainly due to the higher travelling speed. Currently there are few available standards to be followed. R-29 is the obligated regulation for trucks but it can also can be considered for a coach. Thus, when considering a frontal impact, the R-29 regulation must be followed. Since this study will be focused on the passenger door sub-system, it will be assumed that only 3% of the total impact energy from an external mass weighting 1500 kg will be transmitted to the door. It is expected that the coach front pillar will absorb the largest quantity of energy.The Finite Element Method (FEM) can be used to predict crash test results and improve the driver and currier safety. The Pam Crash FEM software, provided by ESI Group was used. This software is extensively used for crash simulation in the automotive industry. A dynamic study using the explicit method was performed. Belytschko-Tsay shell elements with reduced integration were used to construct the FEM mesh. The door is considered to be manufactured with three different materials. The tubular frame uses an S355 J2H steel alloy and the smaller components an EN 10130 DC01 steel alloy. The large frontal panel is manufactured in the EN AW 5754 H111 aluminium alloy.

CrashNet: an encoder\u2013decoder architecture to predict crash test outcomes

Destructive car crash tests are an elaborate, time-consuming, and expensive necessity of the automotive development process. Today, finite element method (FEM) simulations are used to reduce costs by simulating car crashes computationally. We propose CrashNet, an encoder–decoder deep neural network architecture that reduces costs further and models specific outcomes of car crashes very accurately. We achieve this by formulating car crash events as time series prediction enriched with a set of scalar features. Traditional sequence-to-sequence models are usually composed of convolutional neural network (CNN) and CNN transpose layers. We propose to concatenate those with an MLP capable of learning how to inject the given scalars into the output time series. In addition, we replace the CNN transpose with 2D CNN transpose layers in order to force the model to process the hidden state of the set of scalars as one time series. The proposed CrashNet model can be trained efficiently and is able to process scalars and time series as input in order to infer the results of crash tests. CrashNet produces results faster and at a lower cost compared to destructive tests and FEM simulations. Moreover, it represents a novel approach in the car safety management domain.

Analysis of the Head of a Simulation Crash Test Dummy with Speed Motion

The article presents a model of an anthropometric dummy designed for low velocity crash tests, designed in ADAMS. The model consists of rigid bodies connected with special joints with appropriately selected stiffness and damping. The simulation dummy has the appropriate dimensions, shape, and mass of individual elements to suit a 50 percentile male. The purpose of this article is to draw attention to low speed crash tests. Current dummies such as THOR and Hybrid III are used for crash tests at speeds above 40 km/h. In contrast, the low-speed test dummy currently used is the BioRID-II dummy, which is mainly adapted to the whiplash test at speeds of up to 16km/h. Thus, it can be seen that there is a gap in the use of crash test dummies. There are no low-speed dummies for side and front crash tests, and there are no dummies for rear crash tests between 16 km/h and 25 km/h. Which corresponds to a collision of a passenger vehicle with a hard obstacle at a speed of 30 km/h. Therefore, in collisions with low speeds of 20 km/h, the splash airbag will probably not be activated. The article contains the results of a computer simulation at a speed of 20 km/h vehicle out in the ADAMS program. These results were compared with the experimental results of the laboratory crash test using volunteers and the Hybrid III dummy. The simulation results are the basis for building the physical model dummy. The simulation aims to reflect the greatest possible compliance of the movements of individual parts of the human body during a collision at low speed.

Development of passive protection devices for a power head of a high-speed multiple unit train at its collisions

Ukrainian passenger multiple-unit train upgrading supposes on creation of new power heads with passive safety systems (PSS) to save passengers lives, to reduce rolling stock damage and to minimize consequences at collisions. The purpose of this research is to develop energy absorption devices (EADs) for power head PSS according to DSTU EN 15227. EAD 1, EAD 2, EAD 3 designs have been developed with using successful experience of EP20 locomotive EADs creation and EAD prototype crash test results. EAD 1 design includes two elements which are located sequentially. Element 1 is a box with a single-layer package of hexagonal honeycombs inside. Element 2 is a truncated pyramid of honeycombs with triangular cells. EAD 2 design has three steps in element 2 form. EAD 3 design has been developed on the basis of element 1. It has been recommended to install two EAD 1 in a power head frontal part at the coupling level, two EAD 2 in power head window-sill part and two EAD 3 in the inter-car connection at the coupling level. Finite element simulation of EAD plastic deformation at an impact has been carried out for determination of design parameters.

A proposed quasi-static test for improving the crash performance of trailer rear underride guards

Current U.S. and Canadian regulations for rear underride guards on large truck trailers do not promote designs with adequate protection in offset crashes. The objective of the current study was to determine whether a quasi-static evaluation could distinguish between underride guards with different performance in offset crash tests. Five different underride guard designs were evaluated in quasi-static testing. These designs were previously tested in 56 km/h impacts with a midsize passenger car with 30 or 50% overlap. Three of the guards exhibited marginally passing performance in the crash test, with car excursion under the rear of the trailer reaching the base of the windshield but stopping prior to trailer-to-dummy contact. The other two designs failed to prevent trailer-to-dummy contact. Two quasi-static test configurations were assessed for their potential to distinguish between the marginally passing and the failing designs: the outboard P1 test in the existing regulation and a new 20-degree-angled test developed using crash test acceleration measurements. In both configurations, the guard designs with marginally passing crash test results demonstrated higher force and energy levels than the designs with failing crash test results. However, the 20-degree-angled test showed greater differentiation between levels of crash test performance while also producing more representative damage patterns. Underride guards that prevented trailer-to-dummy contact in the crash tests sustained quasi-static force levels of a least 100 kN prior to 75 mm of displacement in the 20-degree test. Rear underride regulations could be improved by replacing the outboard P1 test with a 20-degree-angled load applied to the end of the underride guard. This evaluation also could supplement or replace underride guard crash tests conducted by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).

Do NHTSA vehicle safety ratings affect side impact crash outcomes?

Introduction: Side impact crash injuries tend to be severe, mainly due to the effects of the mechanism of such crashes. This study addresses the relationship between side impact crash injury severities and side impact safety ratings of the passenger cars involved in such crashes. It is motivated by the lack of research on side impact safety ratings in relation to the real-world crash outcomes. Method: Analysis of Crashworthiness Data System’s (CDS) data show the head and thorax are the most common regions of impact of severe injuries, while the neck is the least. Irrespective of body regions, higher-rated vehicles were found to provide better occupant protection to both younger and older driver age groups. Assessment based on injury severity score (ISS) indicates that higher-rated vehicles have an overall lower average ISS compared to lower-rated vehicles. Results: Ultimately, this study shows that vehicles rated with National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s (NHTSA) new criteria had lower average ISS compared to vehicles rated under the old criteria. The 2011 NHTSA side impact rating criteria being relatively new, it has very few crashes to draw meaningful statistically significant conclusions. However, this paper establishes the fact that vehicles with higher star ratings (under experimental conditions) indeed offer increased occupant protection in the field conditions. Practical applications: Previous studies have found that safety was given priority while buying new vehicles. However, people associated vehicle safety with technologies and specific safety features rather than the vehicle’s crash test results or ratings (Koppel, Charlton, Fildes, & Fitzharris, 2008). The results from this study provide a point of reference for safety advocates to educate the drivers about the importance of considering vehicle safety ratings during a vehicle purchase.

Design and specifications of racing car chassis as passive safety feature

This paper reviews the design and test results for the main passive safety feature of Formula-type (Formula Student class) open-wheel racing cars: the tubular spaceframe chassis. Formula Student is an international competition for engineering students and young athletes, who work in teams to design racing cars, assemble them from scratch, and then race them. This paper presents a chassis strength analysis, the results of head-on and lateral crash tests, and torsional stiffness calculations for the chassis of a racing car used by the team representing the Shukhov Belgorod State Technological University, as proof that this particular structural design is safe for future use.

Radial basis function surrogate model-based optimization of guardrail post embedment depth in different soil conditions

For guardrail designers, it is essential to achieve a crashworthy and optimal system design. One of the most critical parameters for an optimal road restraint system is the post embedment depth or the post-to-soil interaction. This study aims to assess the optimum post embedment depth values of three different guardrail posts embedded in soil with varying density. Posts were subjected to dynamic impact loads in the field while a detailed finite element study was performed to construct accurate models for the post–soil interaction. It is well-known that experimental tests and simulations are costly and time-consuming. Therefore, to reduce the computational cost of optimization, radial basis function–based metamodeling methodology was employed to create surrogate models that were used to replace the expensive three-dimensional finite element models. In order to establish the radial basis function model, samples were derived using the full factorial design. Afterward, radial basis function–based metamodels were generated from the derived data and objective functions performed using finite element analysis. The accuracy of the metamodels were validated by k-fold cross-validation, then optimized using multi-objective genetic algorithm. After optimum embedment depths were obtained, finite element simulations of the results were compared with full-scale crash test results. In comparison with the actual post embedment depths, optimal post embedment depths provided significant economic advantages without compromising safety and crashworthiness. It is concluded that the optimum post embedment depths provide an economic advantage of up to 17.89%, 36.75%, and 43.09% for C, S, and H types of post, respectively, when compared to actual post embedment depths.

Structural qualification of a developed GFRP-reinforced TL-5 concrete bridge barrier using vehicle crash testing

Corrosion of steel reinforcement due to environmental effects is a major cause of deterioration problems in bridge barriers. Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars, not only addresses this durability problem but also provides exceptionally high tensile strength. A recent design work conducted at Ryerson University on a test level 5 (TL-5) bridge barrier considered the use of 16 and 12-mm diameter GFRP bars as vertical reinforcement in the barrier front and back faces, respectively, with 16-mm diameter GFRP bars as horizontal reinforcement in the barrier wall, all at 300 mm spacing. The connection between the deck slab and the barrier wall utilised the GFRP headed end bars for proper anchorage. This paper summarises the procedure and the results of a recent vehicle crash test conducted on the developed barrier. The crash test involved the 36 000 V tractor trailer impacting the barrier at a nominal speed and angle of 80 km/h and 15°, respectively. Crash test results satisfied crash test evaluation requirements including structural adequancy, occupant risk and vehicle trajectory after collision. Estimates of the equivalent impact force and associated energy absorbed by the barrier wall due to vehicle impact were deduced.