Craniometric Variation Research Articles

Cryptic lineages of little free-tailed bats, Chaerephon pumilus (Chiroptera: Molossidae) from southern Africa and the western Indian Ocean islands

We investigate mitochondrial DNA and craniometric variation in southern African and Malagasy populations of the small and morphologically variable, house-roosting molossid bat, Chaerephon pumilus in relation to Malagasy populations of the related, smaller-sized species, C. leucogaster. Both cytochrome b and D-loop sequences show C. leucogaster to be nested within C. pumilus sensu lato, with Malagasy C. pumilus forming a sister group to African C. pumilus and Malagasy C. leucogaster. Four distinct D-loop clades are found in southern African populations, all of which occur sympatrically in the greater Durban area of KwaZulu-Natal Province, whilst two of the Durban clades also characterize 1) northern KwaZulu-Natal and low-lying (<600 m) areas of Swaziland, and 2) ‘inland’ populations comprising the Kruger National Park and higher-lying (>600 m) areas of Swaziland. Clades from low-lying areas show evidence of historical demographic expansion around 3300–13 000 years ago (KwaZulu-Natal coastal clade, Clade A1) to 14 700–60 000 years ago (Durban clade, Clade B1), whilst the inland clade (Clade B2a) was demographically more stable. The origin of these clades can be explained by sea level and vegetation changes hypothesized to follow the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) after 18 000 years ago. Sympatric clades are shown to differ significantly in the proportional width of the braincase, and ongoing work will test evidence for acoustic and other morphological differences between them.

Race and global patterns of phenotypic variation

Phenotypic traits have been used for centuries for the purpose of racial classification. Developments in quantitative population genetics have allowed global comparison of patterns of phenotypic variation with patterns of variation in classical genetic markers and DNA markers. Human skin color shows a high degree of variation among geographic regions, typical of traits that show extensive natural selection. Even given this high level of geographic differentiation, skin color variation is clinal and is not well described by discrete racial categories. Craniometric traits show a level of among-region differentiation comparable to genetic markers, with high levels of variation within populations as well as a correlation between phenotypic and geographic distance. Craniometric variation is geographically structured, allowing high levels of classification accuracy when comparing crania from different parts of the world. Nonetheless, the boundaries in global variation are not abrupt and do not fit a strict view of the race concept; the number of races and the cutoffs used to define them are arbitrary. The race concept is at best a crude first-order approximation to the geographically structured phenotypic variation in the human species.

Cryptic Lineages of Little Free-Tailed Bats,Chaerephon pumilus(Chiroptera: Molossidae) from Southern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands

We investigate mitochondrial DNA and craniometric variation in southern African and Malagasy populations of the small and morphologically variable, house-roosting molossid bat, Chaerephon pumilus in relation to Malagasy populations of the related, smaller-sized species, C. leucogaster. Both cytochrome b and D-loop sequences show C. leucogaster to be nested within C. pumilus sensu lato, with Malagasy C. pumilus forming a sister group to African C. pumilus and Malagasy C. leucogaster. Four distinct D-loop clades are found in southern African populations, all of which occur sympatrically in the greater Durban area of KwaZulu-Natal Province, whilst two of the Durban clades also characterize 1) northern KwaZulu-Natal and low-lying ( 600 m) areas of Swaziland. Clades from low-lying areas show evidence of historical demographic expansion around 3300–13 000 years ago (KwaZulu-Natal coastal clade, Clade A1...

Interpretation of craniometric variation in northeastern Japan, the Tohoku region

It is now generally held that the Neolithic Jomon people with generalized craniofacial features occupied the entire Japanese archipelago. Around 2300–1300 years BP, migrants from somewhere in eastern Asia to the southwestern part of Japan admixed with the indigenous Jomon descendants. Based on this population history, it is expected to find clinal variation of genetic as well as phenotypic traits over space and time, as well as population groups related to the previous inhabitants over which the present one has been superimposed at the periphery of the expansion of migrant lineages, the Tohoku region. Taking these hypotheses into account, the present study focuses on the pattern of spatial and temporal craniometric variation to address the process of population growth, expansion, and microevolution during the last 2000 years, with special reference to the population history of the Tohoku region. The results obtained support the ‘dual structure model’ for the origin and affinities of modern Japanese. Turning to the situation of the Tohoku region, one may conclude that the relatively close morphological affinity of Tohoku Kofun and, to a lesser extent, Tohoku Edo with the recent Ainu should not be regarded as an evidence of the close population relationships (ancestral–descendant relationships) but a possible differential retention of common ancestral characteristics.

Craniometric variation in the tiger ( Panthera tigris): Implications for patterns of diversity, taxonomy and conservation

Patterns of geographical variation in tigers are reviewed extensively by a morphometric analysis based on 273 skulls of certain wild origin. The following principal observations emerging from this investigation are found: 1. Modern tigers contain two basic forms: the mainland Asia tiger and the Sunda Island tiger. They are differentiated markedly in skull morphology as well as other morphological characters, the characteristic skull shape and small body size in Java/Bali tigers can be interpreted as adaptational responses to a particular island landscape type and prey species fauna, an evolutionary process known as insular dwarfism. 2. The Sumatran tiger ( P.t. sumatrae) probably represents a hybrid of mainland and Island tigers, which originated from mainland Southeast Asia, colonized Indonesia and hybridized with the Sunda island tigers (Java tiger) during the late Pleistocene, and was subsequently completely isolated from both the mainland Southeast Asia and Java/Bali populations. 3. Among the mainland Asia tigers, the Amur or Siberian tiger is the most distinct; India, Indochinese and South China tigers are craniometrically distinguishable on average, but with clear overlaps; the Caspian tiger, on the other hand, is indistinguishable from other mainland forms and extensively overlaps with both the Northern and Southern Asia subspecies. 4. Most proportional craniometric differences among tigers observed from this study are mainly allometric; the pattern of craniometric variation in mainland tigers is clearly clinal; craniometric variation and sexual dimorphism are closely related. 5. Skull morphometric characters are quite effective for discriminating major tiger geographical populations, but further analysis using other phenetic craniodental characters (shape of sagittal crest, degree of convexity of the frontal, endocranial volume, detailed carnassial morphology) as well as molecular genetic sources, rather than this purely metric study, would certainly be of considerable value in understanding the evolutionary relationships among mainland Asia tigers and their appropriate taxonomic designations.

Craniometric variation of the Ainu: An assessment of differential gene flow from Northeast Asia into Northern Japan, Hokkaido

In and after the latest Neolithic period in Japan (approximately B.P. 2,300 years), there were two distinct waves of migration from eastern Asia. One is well known as successive episodes in which indigenous inhabitants of main-island Japan were intruded on by new arrivals with advanced technology, and of a different genetic stock. Another migration of people and culture, identified as the Okhotsk culture, reached the northeastern part of Hokkaido. As opposed to main-island Japan, the morphological continuity from the Neolithic to recent inhabitants in Hokkaido (Ainu) is notable, so that the evidence of admixture easily could have escaped notice. In this study, the effects of gene flow from an outside source on the pattern of among-group variation of Hokkaido Ainu are examined by means of two models. One is the R-matrix model comparing observed and expected craniometric variation for estimating differential external gene flow into a region. The other is a simple simulation model that estimates admixture in a population with two parental populations. The two approaches give similar results. The results suggest the possibility of admixture between the migrants from Northeast Asia, the Okhotsk culture people, and the indigenous inhabitants in Hokkaido during the 5th to 12th centuries A.D., at least in northeastern Hokkaido. Such gene flow may have a certain degree of effect on the genetic structure of recent Ainu. The findings further suggest morphological heterogeneity in Northeast Asia during the Holocene that has relevance for understanding the morphological heterogeneity seen through time in the New World.

Brief Communication: Human cranial variation fits iterative founder effect model with African origin

Recent studies comparing craniometric and neutral genetic affinity matrices have concluded that, on average, human cranial variation fits a model of neutral expectation. While human craniometric and genetic data fit a model of isolation by geographic distance, it is not yet clear whether this is due to geographically mediated gene flow or human dispersal events. Recently, human genetic data have been shown to fit an iterative founder effect model of dispersal with an African origin, in line with the out-of-Africa replacement model for modern human origins, and Manica et al. (Nature 448 (2007) 346-349) have demonstrated that human craniometric data also fit this model. However, in contrast with the neutral model of cranial evolution suggested by previous studies, Manica et al. (2007) made the a priori assumption that cranial form has been subject to climatically driven natural selection and therefore correct for climate prior to conducting their analyses. Here we employ a modified theoretical and methodological approach to test whether human cranial variability fits the iterative founder effect model. In contrast with Manica et al. (2007) we employ size-adjusted craniometric variables, since climatic factors such as temperature have been shown to correlate with aspects of cranial size. Despite these differences, we obtain similar results to those of Manica et al. (2007), with up to 26% of global within-population craniometric variation being explained by geographic distance from sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative analyses using non-African origins do not yield significant results. The implications of these results are discussed in the light of the modern human origins debate.

Craniofacial variation and population continuity during the South African Holocene

We assess craniometric variation in 153 individually dated human crania from South Africa with the aim of investigating genetic continuity/discontinuity during the Holocene. Evidence from the archaeological record is used to pinpoint likely episodes of genetic discontinuity. Craniometric data are then used to assess the likelihood of genetic change having occurred. Two periods of possible genetic discontinuity are identified: i) c. 4,000 BP, when an increase in overall population size, shifts in site organization and diet, and reduced mobility, were accompanied by reductions in stature; ii) c. 2,000 BP, when the herding of domesticates and the use of pottery vessels were introduced into the region. Results indicate that there was a decrease in cranial size and concomitant size-related changes in craniofacial shape between c.4,000 BP and 3,000 BP. This was followed almost immediately by a recovery in craniofacial size and a return to pre-4,000 BP craniofacial shape at c. 3,000 BP. This recovery continued gradually, extending into the herder period without any major shifts in morphology at 2,000 BP. It is suggested that the fluctuations in craniofacial size/shape were related to changes in environmental factors. Results obtained are consistent with long term continuity in South African Later Stone Age populations during the Holocene.

On Meroitic Nubian Crania, Fordisc 2.0, and Human Biological History

Williams, Belcher, and Armelagos (CA 46:340–46) have reported and discussed the results of a study of Meroitic Period Lower Nubian crania in which, using Fordisc, a forensic identification program, they analyzed 42 crania individually as unknowns in what can be described as a morphometric experiment employing forced allocation (Campbell 1984) that is based on phenetic affinity (McNeil 1978; Cain and Harrison 1960). The results were unexpected in terms of biogeography; the crania were not primarily affiliated with the nearest neighbor (an Egyptian series) but grouped (although not always with strong statistical support) with series from all of the continents and Pacific Oceania and a range of U.S. social census groups. These results deserve further comment with regard to their possible “meanings.” Williams et al. seem to restrict their explanation to invoking the published finding of a greater within-group than between-group craniometric variation in one study and suggesting a role for nongenetic variation caused by the “conditions of growth” during development. They do not fully reconcile their claim that human biological variation is primarily clinal with the results of their study, which indicates a more complex situation. Clearly the demonstration of similarity using multivariate analyses does not always mean identity, close recent common origin, or even origin in an adjacent region. Williams et al. anticipate and effectively refute the criticism that a major flaw of their study is its use of a group not present in the database, noting that a forensic worker can never really know if an individual’s origin population is actually represented in the forensic tool’s database. Technically, however, this criticism is correct and is grounded in the concerns of both forensic science and the best-use parameters of canonical variate or discriminant function analysis when used for identification. The goal of forensics is the actual identification of the unknown with a recognized social group known to law enforcement and not the discovery of relative similarity (phenetic affinity). The aspect of discriminant function analysis relevant to this discussion is its secondary use to minimize the probability of misplacing an unknown object, in this case a cranium, in the nonorigin population (Albrecht 1980). Given the goal of identification (Campbell 1978), the use of

On the Misclassification of Human Crania

Previous articleNext article No AccessDiscussionOn the Misclassification of Human Crania Are There Any Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation?Mark Hubbe and Walter A. NevesMark HubbeInstituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo, Universidad Católica de Norte, Calle Gustavo LePaige 380, 141‐0000 San Pedro de Atacama, Chile ([email protected])/Laboratório de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão 277, 05508‐090 São Paulo, Brazil. 28 IX 06 Search for more articles by this author and Walter A. NevesInstituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo, Universidad Católica de Norte, Calle Gustavo LePaige 380, 141‐0000 San Pedro de Atacama, Chile ([email protected])/Laboratório de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão 277, 05508‐090 São Paulo, Brazil. 28 IX 06 Search for more articles by this author Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo, Universidad Católica de Norte, Calle Gustavo LePaige 380, 141‐0000 San Pedro de Atacama, Chile ([email protected])/Laboratório de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão 277, 05508‐090 São Paulo, Brazil. 28 IX 06PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Current Anthropology Volume 48, Number 2April 2007 Sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/512985 Views: 101Total views on this site Citations: 14Citations are reported from Crossref PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:M. Katherine Spradley Use of craniometric data to facilitate migrant identifications at the United States/Mexico border, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 175, no.22 (Feb 2021): 486–496.https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24241Bridget F.B. Algee-Hewitt, Jieun Kim The consecutive inference of ancestry and age from shape measures of the pubic symphysis, (Jan 2021): 179–196.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824370-1.00004-3Pamela L. Geller, Christopher M. Stojanowksi The vanishing Black Indian: Revisiting craniometry and historic collections, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 162, no.22 (Oct 2016): 267–284.https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23115Niccolo Leo Caldararo The Concepts of 'Species' and 'Population' in Considering Ancient DNA and Building Phylogenetic Trees of Hominid Evolution, SSRN Electronic Journal (Jan 2017).https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2939996Melissa A. Clark, Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg, Mark Hubbe, Sam Stout Quantification of Maxillary Dental Arcade Curvature and the Estimation of Biological Ancestry in Forensic Anthropology, Journal of Forensic Sciences 61, no.11 (Aug 2015): 141–146.https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12910Lauren Kallenberger, Varsha Pilbrow Using CRANID to test the population affinity of known crania, Journal of Anatomy 221, no.55 (Aug 2012): 459–464.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01558.xANTTI HAAPALA, MIKA KÖRKKÖ, ELISA KOIVURANTA, JOUKO NIINIMÄKI Optical analysis of ink and other contaminants in process waters, TAPPI Journal 11, no.88 (Sep 2012): 51–58.https://doi.org/10.32964/TJ11.8.51ANTTI HAAPALA, MIKA KÖRKKÖ, KALLE KEMPPAINEN, TUOMAS STOOR, JOUKO NIINIMÄKI Paper machine white water deaeration and two-stage flotation with channel flow, TAPPI Journal 11, no.77 (Aug 2012): 51–58.https://doi.org/10.32964/TJ11.7.51Pierre Guyomarc’h, Jaroslav Bruzek Accuracy and reliability in sex determination from skulls: A comparison of Fordisc® 3.0 and the discriminant function analysis, Forensic Science International 208, no.1-31-3 (May 2011): 180.e1–180.e6.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.03.011Sabrina B. Sholts, Phillip L. Walker, Susan C. Kuzminsky, Kevin W.P. Miller, Sebastian K.T.S. Wärmländer Identification of Group Affinity from Cross-sectional Contours of the Human Midfacial Skeleton Using Digital Morphometrics and 3D Laser Scanning Technology* ,‡, Journal of Forensic Sciences 56, no.22 (Feb 2011): 333–338.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01701.xMarina Elliott, Mark Collard F ordisc and the determination of ancestry from cranial measurements, Biology Letters 5, no.66 (Dec 2009): 849–852.https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0462Ryan M. Seidemann, Christopher M. Stojanowski, Fredrick J. Rich The Identification of a Human Skull Recovered from an eBay Sale, Journal of Forensic Sciences 54, no.66 (Nov 2009): 1247–1253.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2009.01194.xChristopher M. Stojanowski, William N. Duncan Historiography and forensic analysis of the Fort King George “skull”: Craniometric assessment using the specific population approach, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 140, no.22 (Oct 2009): 275–289.https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21067Lyle W. Konigsberg, Bridget F.B. Algee-Hewitt, Dawnie Wolfe Steadman Estimation and evidence in forensic anthropology: Sex and race, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139, no.11 (Feb 2009): 77–90.https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20934

Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state

The origins of the ancient Egyptian state and its formation have received much attention through analysis of mortuary contexts, skeletal material, and trade. Genetic diversity was analyzed by studying craniometric variation within a series of six time-successive Egyptian populations in order to investigate the evidence for migration over the period of the development of social hierarchy and the Egyptian state. Craniometric variation, based upon 16 measurements, was assessed through principal components analysis, discriminant function analysis, and Mahalanobis D(2) matrix computation. Spatial and temporal relationships were assessed by Mantel and Partial Mantel tests. The results indicate overall population continuity over the Predynastic and early Dynastic, and high levels of genetic heterogeneity, thereby suggesting that state formation occurred as a mainly indigenous process. Nevertheless, significant differences were found in morphology between both geographically-pooled and cemetery-specific temporal groups, indicating that some migration occurred along the Egyptian Nile Valley over the periods studied.

Sex-specific differences of craniofacial traits in Croatia: The impact of environment in a small geographic area

Background: Craniometric variation in humans reflects different genetic and environmental influences. Long-term climatic adaptation is less likely to show an impact on size and shape variation in a small local area than at the global level.Aim: The aim of this work was to assess the contribution of the particular environmental factors to body height and craniofacial variability in a small geographic area of Croatia.Subjects and methods: A total of 632 subjects, aged 18–21, participated in the survey. Body height, head length, head breadth, head height, head circumference, cephalic index, morphological face height, face breadth, and facial index were analysed regarding geographic, climatic and dietary conditions in different regions of the country, and correlated with the specific climatic variables (cumulative multiyear sunshine duration, cumulative multiyear average precipitation, multiyear average air temperatures) and calcium concentrations in drinking water. Significant differences between groups classified according to geographic, climatic or dietary affiliation, and the impact of the environmental predictors on the variation in the investigated traits were assessed using multiple forward stepwise regression analyses.Results: Higher body height measures in both sexes were significantly correlated with Mediterranean diet type. Mediterranean diet type also contributed to higher head length and head circumference measures in females. Cephalic index values correlated to geographic regions in both sexes, showing an increase from southern to eastern Croatia. In the same direction, head length significantly decreased in males and head breadth increased in females. Mediterranean climate was associated with higher and narrower faces in females. The analysis of the particular climatic variables did not reveal a significant influence on body height in either sex. Concurrently, climatic features influenced all craniofacial traits in females and only head length and facial index in males. Mediterranean climate, characterized by higher average sunshine duration, higher average precipitation and higher average air temperatures, was associated with longer, higher and narrower skulls, higher head circumference, lower cephalic index, and higher and narrower faces (lower facial index). Calcium concentrations in drinking water did not correlate significantly with any dependent variable.Conclusion: A significant effect of environmental factors on body height and craniofacial variability was found in Croatian young adult population. This effect was more pronounced in females, revealing sex-specific craniofacial differentiation. However, the impact of environment was low and may explain only 1.0–7.32% variation of the investigated traits.

Craniometric Variation within the Pleistocene of Java: The Ngawi 1 Cranium

The recently described cranium from Ngawi, East Java, is an important addition to the human fossil record. Several workers have placed Ngawi 1 into a grouping with the Ngandong and Sambungmacan specimens due to an overall metric and nonmetric similarity to those fossils. Multivariate comparisons of cranial shape have not been performed utilizing Ngawi, however, so it is unknown whether this specimen will fall within the current range of variation in those samples or if it will extend that range. Likewise, the inclusion of the Ngawi skull will allow a new test of the hypothesis that the African and Indonesian specimens currently allocated to Homo erectus exhibit a craniometric pattern that is significantly different from that seen in the Zhoukoudian crania. Mahalanobis distances will be used to examine the levels of variation present in a large sample representing the most complete African, Indonesian, and Chinese specimens of H. erectus. Statistical significance of the distances generated will be calculated using random expectation statistics. The results indicate that Ngawi shares strong shape similarities with the African and Indonesian specimens studied, and exhibits significant differences with the Zhoukoudian fossils. This supports earlier work by a number of scholars that found evidence of a unique craniometric pattern at that Chinese site. In addition, these tests indicate that cranial shape remained relatively invariant on Java for much of the Pleistocene. These findings, in conjunction with evidence for the appearance of unique nonmetric traits in the late-surviving Ngandong crania, suggest that the hominid populations of Java were relatively isolated for extended periods of time.

The Variability of Cranial Morphology in Modern Horses

Horses bred nowadays are characterized by high variability of the body build. The variability concerns exterior features and skeleton features. From among the skeleton parts the skull is an element influenced by selection and environmental adaptation. The aim of these investigations was to find whether cranial traits exhibit variability in relation to the body build of horses. To do this, metric parameters of skulls of 43 horses used in the investigations were analysed with various statistical techniques. On the basis of ANOVA, Principal Components Analysis and Canonical Discriminant Analysis it was found that horses of various constitutional types exhibit differences in cranial morphology. Warm blood horses of the respiratory constitutional type have more complex nasal cavity from horses of heavier body build. A meaningful effect on craniometric variability was observed in the length and breadth of the viscerocranium. Also the height of the viscerocranium--a cranial feature of the respiratory tract, showed a high discriminating power.

Exploring northeast African metric craniofacial variation at the individual level: A comparative study using principal components analysis

A principal components analysis was carried out on male crania from the northeast quadrant of Africa and selected European and other African series. Individuals, not predefined groups, were the units of study, while nevertheless keeping group membership in evidence. The first principal component seems to largely capture "size" variation in crania from all of the regions. The same general morphometric trends were found to exist within the African and European crania, although there was some broad separation along a cline. Anatomically, the second principal component captures predominant trends denoting a broader to narrower nasal aperture combined with a similar shape change in the maxilla, an inverse relation between face-base lengths ("projection") and base breadths, and a decrease in anterior base length relative to base breadth. The third principal component broadly describes trends within Africa and Europe: specifically, a change from a combination of a relatively narrower face and longer vault, to one of a wider face and shorter vault; it shows the northeast quadrant Africans along a cline with the other Africans. Stated in relative terms, the northeastern Africans tend to exhibit narrower bases in relationship to more projecting faces, and broader nasal areas than Europeans, although there is range of variation. Relative to the other African groups, they have narrower nasal areas and narrower faces in relationship to vault length. The crania from the northeast quadrant of Africa collectively demonstrate the greatest pattern of overlap with both Europeans and other Africans. Variation was found to be high in all series but greatest in the African material as a whole. Individuals from different geographical regions frequently plotted near each other, revealing aspects of variation at the level of individuals that is obscured by concentrating on the most distinctive facial traits once used to construct "types." The high level of African interindividual variation in craniometric pattern is reminiscent of the great level of molecular diversity found in Africa. These results, coupled with those of Y chromosome studies, may help generate hypotheses concerning the length of time over which recent craniometric variation emerged in Africa.

Skull size and shape ofDasymys(Rodentia, Muridae) from sub-Saharan Africa

Three morphological datasets (traditional measurements, dorsal and ventral skull shape coordinates) were used to examine craniometric variation in the water ratDasymys, a genus found throughout sub-Saharan Africa. This study is the first to examine the entire genus as well as to statistically compare taxa within the genus to the nominate speciesD. incomtus. Morphological data confirmed that the five species recognised by Musser &amp; Carleton (1993);D. incomtus, D. foxi, D. nudipes, D. montanusandD. rufulus, represent valid morphological species although two of the species do not encompass the geographic areas presently assigned to them.Dasymys rufulusoccupies a larger range andD. incomtusa much smaller range than previously suggested withD. rufulusappearing to be part of a species complex. Furthermore, we discerned six additional morphological species resulting from the elevation of four subspecies (D. i. capensis, D. i. griseifrons, D. i. mediusandD. i. longipilosus) and the recognition of two new species:D. shortridgei(restricted to the Okavango Delta) andD. robertsii(occurring in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa).

Boas and beyond: migration and craniometric variation.

Migration is expected to affect craniometric variation in three ways: 1) movement into a different environment leading to developmental plasticity; 2) movement into a different environment followed by in situ adaptation through natural selection; and 3) changes in among-group differentiation and genetic distance through the action of gene flow. The relative influence of these three factors has been argued in the literature, most recently in a series of articles debating the statistical and biological significance of Boas's immigration studies as they relate to cranial plasticity. The Boas debate is discussed within the broader context of debate over genetic and environmental influences on craniometric variation. Additional examples are provided from an ongoing study of global craniometric variation. Although developmental plasticity and climatic adaptation have had an impact on craniometric variation, these factors tend not to erase, or even obscure greatly, underlying patterns of population structure and history that fit a neutral model of quantitative variation. Thus, craniometric data can be used to explore questions of gene flow and genetic affinity.

Gorilla biology: a multidisciplinary perspective

Preface Andrea B. Taylor and Michele L. Goldsmith Acknowledgements Part I. Gorilla Taxonomy and Comparative Morphology: 1. Gorillas: how important, how many, how long? Russell H. Tuttle 2. A history of gorilla taxonomy Colin P. Groves 3. Patterns of diversity in gorilla cranial morphology Rebecca M. Stumpf, John D. Polk, John F. Oates, William L. Jungers, Christopher P. Heesy, Colin P. Groves and John G. Fleagle 4. The hierarchy of intraspecific craniometric variation in gorillas: a population-thinking approach with implications for fossil species recognition studies Gene H. Albrecht, Bruce R. Gelvin and Joseph M. A. Miller 5. Morphological differentiation of Gorilla subspecies Steven R. Leigh, John H. Relethford, Paul B. Park and Lyle W. Konigsberg 6. Ontogeny and function of masticatory form in Gorilla: functional, evolutionary and taxonomic implications Andrea B. Taylor 7. Ontogenetic variation in Gorilla postcranial morphology Sandra E. Inouye Part II. Molecular Genetics: 8. Gorilla systematics, taxonomy and conservation in the era of genomics Oliver A. Ryder 9. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA estimates of divergence between western and eastern gorillas Michael I. Jensen-Seaman, Amos S. Dienard and Kenneth K. Kidd 10. Genetic studies of western gorillas Stephen L. Clifford, Katherine A. Abernethy, L. J. T. White, Caroline E. G. Tutin, M. W. Bruford and E. Jane Wickings Part III. Behavioral Ecology: 11. Behavioral ecology Caroline E. Tutin 12. Gorilla social relationships: a comparative overview David P. Watts 13. Within-group feeding competition and socioecological factors influencing social organisation of gorillas in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo Juichi Yamagiwa, Kanyunyi Basabose, Kiswele Kaleme and Takakazu Yumoto 14. Comparative behavioral ecology of a lowland and highland gorilla population: where do Bwindi gorillas fit? Michele L. Goldsmith 15. Are gorillas vacuum cleaners of the forest floor? The roles of body size, habitat and food preferences on gorilla dietary flexibility and nutrition Melissa J. Remis Part IV. Gorilla Conservation: 16. Gorilla conservation Alexander H. Harcourt 17. The current status of gorillas and threats to their existence at the beginning of a new millennium Andrew J. Plumptre, Alastair McNeilage and Jefferson D. Hall 18. Distribution, taxonomy, genetics, ecology and causal links of gorilla survival: the need to develop practical knowledge for gorilla conservation Esteban E. Sarmiento 19. The Cross River gorilla: the natural history and status of a neglected and critically endangered subspecies John F. Oates, Kelly L. McFarland, Jacqueline L. Groves, Richard A. Bergl, Joshua M. Linder and Todd R. Disotell Afterword Michele L. Goldsmith and Andrea B. Taylor.

Craniometric variation in the Americas.

Craniofacial variation is investigated in Latin America and the Caribbean. The samples included in this study are two historic and one prehistoric sample from Ecuador; prehistoric and modern Cuban samples; a prehistoric Peruvian sample; two prehistoric Mexican samples and one contemporary admixed Mexican sample; a 16th/17th-century Spanish sample; and Terry blacks. Biological distance is investigated using traditional craniometrics by computing size and shape variables according to Mosimann and colleagues. This study shows that there is much biological variation within the Americas.

A geometric morphometric study of regional differences in the ontogeny of the modern human facial skeleton.

This study examines interpopulation variations in the facial skeleton of 10 modern human populations and places these in an ontogenetic perspective. It aims to establish the extent to which the distinctive features of adult representatives of these populations are present in the early post natal period and to what extent population differences in ontogenetic scaling and allometric trajectories contribute to distinct facial forms. The analyses utilize configurations of facial landmarks and are carried out using geometric morphometric methods. The results of this study show that modern human populations can be distinguished based on facial shape alone, irrespective of age or sex, indicating the early presence of differences. Additionally, some populations have statistically distinct facial ontogenetic trajectories that lead to the development of further differences later in ontogeny. We conclude that population-specific facial morphologies develop principally through distinctions in facial shape probably already present at birth and further accentuated and modified to variable degrees during growth. These findings raise interesting questions regarding the plasticity of facial growth patterns in modern humans. Further, they have important implications in relation to the study of growth in the face of fossil hominins and in relation to the possibility of developing effective discriminant functions for the identification of population affinities of immature facial skeletal material. Such tools would be of value in archaeological, forensic and anthropological applications. The findings of this study underline the need to examine more deeply, and in more detail, the ontogenetic basis of other causes of craniometric variation, such as sexual dimorphism and hominin species differentiation.