Crack Mouth Opening Displacement Research Articles

From quasi-static to dynamic: Experimental study of mechanical and fracture behaviour of epoxy resin

Epoxy polymers are extensively used in various engineering applications such as aerospace, defence, sports, automotive etc. This article focuses on the in-depth mechanical characterisation of EPOFINE®-1564, a Bisphenol-A-based liquid epoxy resin under various loading conditions. To predict the tensile and compressive behaviour of the representative epoxy resin, quasi-static experiments were performed in the range of 10−4 to 10−2s−1 on Universal testing machine (UTM) while the dynamic experiments were conducted using Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) for high strain rates (1136–2833 s−1). In this study, 3D Digital Image Correlation (DIC) was also used to evaluate the specimen's full-field displacement profile over a wide range of strain rates. Analysis of various mechanical properties such as elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate strength, revealed that the epoxy polymer is strain rate dependent within the considered strain rate range. For understanding the fracture behaviour, three-point bend (TPB) experiments were also carried out for both quasi-static (1–10 mm/min) as well as dynamic (10–15 m s-1) regimes. Dynamic fracture experiments were performed using the modified Hopkinson Pressure Bar (MHPB). The fracture toughness was determined through load vs crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD). Fracture toughness was found to increase with the displacement rate due to the significant plastic deformation under quasi-static range. Conversely, it was found to decrease under dynamic loading because of absence of plastic deformation resulting in brittle fracture. The fracture surface of the specimen was examined through a high magnification digital microscope.

Sustainable use of recycled fine aggregates in steel fiber-reinforced concrete: Fresh, flexural, mechanical and durability characteristics

Recycling construction waste is a viable tactic for advancing environmentally friendly building methods. With regard to concrete applications, the purpose of this research is to determine whether it is feasible to use recycled fine concrete aggregates (RFA) in lieu of natural fine aggregates (NFA) and to lessen the environmental impact of natural resource depletion and landfill space. A sustainable steel fiber-reinforced concrete was created by replacing NFA with RFA at the replacement ratio of 0 %, 50 %, and 100 %. Steel fibers (SF) were also included to mixes at three different contents of 0, 25 and 50 kg/m3 in order to further improve the qualities of the concretes. Thus, the aim of this paper is to appraise how the addition of FRA affects the mechanical, freeze-thaw, fresh, and non-destructive qualities of concrete. Nine concrete mixtures were cast, and tests were made to evaluate the following properties: flowability, fresh concrete unit weight, tensile and compressive strengths, elastic modulus, surface hardness, crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD), freeze and thaw performance, sulfate resistance and abrasion. Moreover, microstructure properties of concrete were also analyzed. The outcomes revealed that the mechanical, flexural, and durability performances of the concrete mixtures were enhanced by substituting RFA for NFA. The mixture with 50%RFA and 50 kg/m3 SF gained maximum compressive strength of 44.82 MPa which was 20.7 % greater than the reference mixture (RFA0F0). The mixture containing 100 % RFA and 25 kg/m3 SF had the highest elastic modulus and showed an approximately 33 % augmentation in elastic modulus as per the reference mixture. The mixture with 100%RFA and 50 kg/m3 SF exhibited the largest tensile strength indicating 60 % tensile strength enhancement as per the reference mixture. Combined use of RFA and 50 kg/m3 SF in concrete mixtures had the best abrasion and freeze-thaw resistance. SF incorporated concrete mixtures with RFA exhibited worse sulfate resistance. This study contributed significantly to global resource efficiency and environmental preservation by shedding light on the sustainable use of RFA and SF in the making of concrete. The results made important contributions to global research and promote environmentally friendly building methods all throughout the world.

Influence of Fiber Dimensions on Bridging Performance of Polyvinyl Alcohol Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composite (PVA-FRCC)

This study investigates the influence of fiber dimensions on the bridging performance of polyvinyl alcohol fiber-reinforced cementitious composite (PVA-FRCC) through an experimental and analytical program. Bending tests, bridging law calculations, and section analysis are conducted. Bending tests of notched specimens of PVA-FRCC with six different PVA fiber dimensions are performed to determine the load–deflection (LPD) and bending moment–crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) relationships. The fiber volume fraction for all PVA-FRCCs is set to 2%. It is found that the load capacity of PVA-FRCC with a 27 μm diameter fiber is much higher than that of the other fibers, and the load capacity decreases as the fiber diameter increases. The study proposes parameters for the characteristic points of the tri-linear model for the single-fiber pullout model as functions of diameter, bond fracture energy, elastic modulus, cross-sectional area, and perimeter of the fiber. These findings provide valuable insights into the behavior of PVA-FRCC under different fiber dimensions. Bridging law calculations are conducted to obtain tensile stress–crack width relationships using the developed single-fiber pullout models. The Popovics model for the complete tensile stress–crack width relationship is adopted to obtain a better fit with the bridging law calculation, and then section analysis is conducted. The bridging law calculation results show that the maximum tensile stress decreases as the fiber diameter increases. It is also determined that most of the smaller-diameter fibers ruptured, whereas the larger fiber diameters pulled out from the matrix. The section analysis results show good agreement with the maximum bending moments obtained from the bending test.

The recycling potential of fibre reinforced concrete with 4D Dramix® fibres: Experimental analysis and model verification

This experimental study aims to advance sustainable construction practices by exploring the recycling potential of steel fibre reinforced concrete with 4D Dramix® fibres from the company Bekaert. In this research steel fibres from reinforced concrete specimens with varying fibre quantities of two 4D Dramix® fibre types, more precisely, the 55/50 BG and 65/50 BG fibres are recycled. A jaw crusher at the recycling company AC Materials (Flanders, Belgium) and an impact crusher at the research and development company CTP (Wallonia, Belgium) are employed to optimize the quantity and quality of the recycled fibres. Subsequently, the recycled steel fibres are reintegrated into fresh concrete mixes. The recycling process of the fibres results in a general decrease of the residual tensile strength capacity for the concrete mixtures with recycled fibres (RSFRC) compared to those with new fibres (NSFRC), and the deviation increases with increasing crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD). It was found that fibres recovered by the impact crushing process are (generally) shorter than those obtained from the jaw crusher, which results in a fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) with a somewhat lower post-cracking tensile strength. Nevertheless, most recycled fibres retain 75 % of their original capacity, considering the mean residual tensile strength of the FRC mixtures. Consequently, current findings show promising results for the recycling potential of steel fibres and the residual strength behaviour of RSFRC compared to NSFRC. Additionally, this study highlights the potential for an improved constitutive tensile model for FRC mixtures, where the design parameters ka and kc can be estimated based on the fR3k/fR1k-ratio.

On comparison of fracture energy measured for six hot mix asphalt composite mixtures using force–load line displacement and force–crack mouth opening displacement curves at intermediate temperatures and different loading rates

AbstractThere are two methods for determining the fracture energy (Gf) of hot mix asphalt (HMA) composites at intermediate temperatures: (i) load–crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) and (ii) load–load line displacement (LLD) curves. The effects of these two methods on the Gf values of different HMA mixtures are investigated at different loading rates and temperatures. A large number of semicircular bend (SCB) specimens were tested under mode I at different temperatures of 5°C, 15°C, and 25°C and loading rates of 1, 5, 10, and 50 mm/min. The three‐dimensional (3D) fracture energy surface plots obtained from the tests revealed that both temperature and loading rate have noticeable effects on the fracture energy, such that Gf values generally increased by increasing the loading rate and reducing the temperature. Also, the Gf values measured by the LLD method were higher than those by the CMOD method for lower temperatures and lower loading rates (i.e., below 10 mm/min). For the higher loading rates, the Gf values determined by the CMOD method were higher than those by the LLD method. Furthermore, the HMA type had meaningful influences on the variations of Gf at different temperatures and loading rates.

Rate dependent C* fracture parameter using the optimized wedge-split test geometry and vision-based automated crack tip detection

Typical monotonic load-line displacement (LLD) control and crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) control cracking tests are limited to singular loading rates and testing temperatures. These experimental protocols are not designed to derive a fundamental fracture parameter capable of relating to the viscoelastic property and cracking behavior of asphalt concrete (AC). On the other hand, a multi-rate LLD-control monotonic fracture experiment is capable of capturing the viscoelastic cracking behavior of AC by providing the rate-dependent fundamental C* fracture parameter as an output. Crack length and crack speed parameters are combined with reaction loads to calculate the rate-dependent C* parameter. The current C* experiment protocol implements manual processing of video images and exhibits high variability. The study aims to optimize the wedge-split geometry and improve the C* fracture parameter calculation protocol by applying an automated vision-based crack detection system and recording the crack growth path, considering the horizontal and vertical movement of the crack tip with higher accuracy. The three notch lengths (5, 15, and 30 mm) were evaluated. Plant and laboratory-produced mixes with varying stiffness and fracture characteristics were included in the testing program. An optimized notch length for the test geometry was determined based on the on-specimen strain field observed using the digital image correlation (DIC) technique and crack path analysis. The optimum notch length was found to be 15 mm due to consistent strain localization at the crack tip and less crack deviation in the horizontal direction. The main contribution of this paper is the proposed vision-based crack path detection method, which enables measuring the crack path's true crack length and maximum horizontal deviation. The developed protocol and optimization of the testing geometry led to a significant improvement of the existing C* testing protocol, resulting in higher data quality and consistent results. The proposed protocol was validated using three comparable and distinctively different lab-produced mixtures. The results show that the C* experiment effectively differentiated between the mixes based on crack speed and the C* parameter.

Analysis and Comparison of Three Bending Tests on Phosphogypsum-Based Material According to Peridynamic Theory

Phosphogypsum-based materials have gained much attention in the field of road infrastructure from the economic and sustainable perspectives. The Three-point bending test, the Four-point bending test and the Semi-circular bending test are three typical test methods applied for fracture energy measurement. However, the optimal test method for fracture energy evaluation has not been determined for phosphogypsum-based materials. To contribute to the gap, this study aims to analyze and compare the three test methods for fracture energy evaluation of phosphogypsum materials based on the peridynamic theory. For this purpose, the load–displacement, vertical displacement–Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) and fracture energy of the phosphogypsum-based materials were measured and calculated from the three test methods. The simulated load–displacement and vertical displacement–CMOD by PD numerical models, with different fracture energy as inputs, were compared to the corresponding tested values according to simulation error results. The results showed that the Four-point bending test led to minimized errors lower than 0.189 and indicators lower than 0.124, demonstrating the most optimal test method for the fracture energy measurement of phosphogypsum-based material. The results of this study can provide new methodological references for the selection of material fracture energy measurement tests.

Fracture behavior of environmentally friendly high-strength concrete using recycled rubber powder and steel fibers: Experiment and modeling

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is becoming increasingly popular for its exceptional mechanical properties but suffers from high cost and limited ductility. To overcome these limitations, this study explores the development of cost-effective and ductile Environmentally friendly High-strength Concrete (E-HSC) by incorporating recycled steel fiber (RSF) and rubber powder into UHPC. Fracture properties and crack propagation behavior were examined through three-point bending fracture tests on notched beams with varying rubber powder (0 %, 5 %, 20 %, 35 % and 50 %) and recycled steel fiber (1 %, 2 % and 3 %) content. Digital Image Correlation method was Used to Measure Crack mouth opening displacement and Fracture process zone in the Fracture Process of E-HSC of the E-HSC were analyzed using the digital image correlation method. Results revealed that E-HSC with 5 % rubber powder exhibited superior fracture energy and double-K fracture toughness. The use of rubber powder and RSF enhances the ductility of concrete, with the characteristic length consistently increasing as the content of rubber powder and RSF increases. Additionally, a softening constitutive model was proposed to evaluate the fracture performance of E-HSC based on rubber powder and recycled steel fiber content. This research provides experimental data and theoretical insights for developing resilient E-HSC suitable for applications in significant structures.

Experimental Study on Fracture Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete Containing Red Mud Waste and Different Steel Fiber Types

This study aims to investigate the effect of integrating red mud (RM) waste and different types of steel fibers on the fracture toughness characteristics of self-compacting concrete (SCC). A total of 24 specimens consisting of notched SCC beams with various steel fibers (measuring 100 × 100 × 500 mm) are subjected to a three-point bending test. This study examines five various fiber types characterized by varying shapes and aspect ratios. These fiber types include the hook-end fiber with lengths of 60 and 30 mm, the long straight fiber with lengths of 21 and 13 mm, and the flat-end fiber. Six concrete mixtures, each incorporating fibers with 1% of the volume percentage, are examined. RM is used at a replacement rate of 20% of the mass of cement. Another objective of the study is to analyze the mechanical and fresh characteristics of concrete. The findings indicate that the incorporation of steel fiber has an adverse effect on the fresh concrete characteristics of SCC. The presence of steel fiber results in enhanced mechanical properties, peak loads, and deflection at the point of failure, in addition to an increase in the crack mouth opening displacement. The fracture toughness of SCC mixtures is also influenced by the presence of steel fiber.

Fracture mechanical properties and interfacial characteristics of engineered cementitious composites containing coarse aggregate

Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) have significantly high deformability, but their application in the field of engineered crack prevention is severely limited by their high shrinkage and high cost. To address this issue, a safer and more economical ECC was designed in this paper by adding coarse aggregate (CA) into the ECC matrix (i.e., ECC-CA). Then, experimental studies on the fracture properties of ECC-CA were carried out from both macroscopic and microscopic perspectives, by considering four CA mass contents and three CA particle sizes. The results show that ECC-CA maintains good mechanical properties and deformation capacity as ECC. Its crack mouth opening displacement corresponding to the largest particle size (13–17 mm) and the largest mass content (30 %) is equivalent to 47.8 % of that of ECC, which is about 40 times higher than that of conventional concrete. Further, the interfacial transition zone characteristics between each phase medium and matrix were analyzed in ECC-CA for the purpose of clarifying the crack initiation and evolution trends, elucidating the influence of CA on the fracture mechanism of ECC-CA (i.e., fiber cage effect) based on both macroscopic performance and microscopic characteristics.

Coupled effects of UV radiation and freeze–thaw cycles on the fracture behavior of asphalt concrete

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China is characterized by extreme climate conditions, including intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation, frequent freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs), and significant temperature fluctuations. These conditions contribute to severe cracking in asphalt pavements. This study aims to investigate the impact of coupled damage from UV radiation and FTCs on the fracture behavior of asphalt concrete. To simulate the coupled environmental damage (CED) experienced by asphalt pavement in the field, an alternating two-factor laboratory procedure was developed. This procedure reflects the climatic conditions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The semi-circular bending test, combined with digital image correlation technology, was employed to evaluate the effects of temperature and CED cycles on fracture-related parameters of asphalt concrete. These parameters include the load–displacement curve, fracture toughness, and fracture energy. Fracture behavioral characteristics such as horizontal strain, crack length, crack propagation path, and crack mouth opening displacement were also analyzed. The results indicate that coupled damage from UV radiation and FTCs significantly weakened the fracture resistance of asphalt concrete. Compared with other fracture-related indicators, the most significant reduction observed was the fracture energy of 68.1%. The two environmental factors exhibited a mutually reinforcing effect on the fracture properties of asphalt concrete, with low temperatures further intensifying their influence. CED cycles delayed the initiation of cracks in asphalt concrete but accelerated crack propagation. This led to a reduction in time to failure by up to 57.6% and a maximum reduction in horizontal strain of 24%. Additionally, the cracking propagation path of asphalt concrete became more linear with increased crack mouth opening displacement. Future research should focus on the evolution of damage accumulation in asphalt concrete under CED cycles, with the goal of establishing predictive models for long-term service life.

Quantifying nonlinear fracture parameters in bituminous SCB specimens: A compliance-based approach

Bituminous mixtures containing various defects, such as cracks and voids, exhibit ductile behavior in hot environments and brittle behavior in cold environments. Such materials can only be simulated realistically with the criteria of nonlinear fracture mechanics. In this investigation, the semi-circular bending (SCB) specimens, which have commonly been used to measure linear elastic fracture toughness parameters and fracture energy of asphalt and rock materials up to now, are studied to estimate several nonlinear fracture parameters of bituminous composites such as nonlinear fracture toughness, effective crack extension, critical crack tip opening displacement and brittleness. For this, the compliance functions of SCB specimens based on crack mouth opening displacement and load line displacement are derived by the finite element method at first. Subsequently, eight series of SCB tests in the literature, which were experimented with at low and room temperature environments, are examined by using two different compliance methods in fracture mechanics of quasi-brittle materials. This study's findings reveal that the crack extension in the pre-peak regime for mixes with bituminous at both low and normal temperatures is not statistically negligible and the use of nonlinear fracture toughness is, therefore, a necessity.

Mechanical properties of polymer fibre reinforced concrete in the light of various standards

The article presents the results of a detailed experimental campaign including a compressive strength test, three- and four-point bending test (3PBT and 4PBT, respectively) of polymer fiber reinforced concrete with the addition of metakaolin. The comprehensive analysis included three Types of concrete mixture differing in amount and used polymer fibers. It was concluded that polymer fibers did not influence the maximum compressive and flexural tensile strength of concrete. On the other hand, they had a beneficial effect on the ductility, residual and equivalent flexural tensile strengths, and fracture energy of samples. The mixtures of Type 1 and 2 were characterized by softening behaviour but the mixture of Type 3 by soft-hardening behaviour. In the 3PBT, the residual flexural tensile strengths obtained according to EN 14651 did not correspond clearly with equivalent flexural tensile strengths calculated in compliance with RILEM TC 162-TDF. It is noteworthy that the effectiveness and correctness of equations presented in other work of the authors referring to dependencies between deflection, crack and tip mouth opening displacements for the 3PBT were confirmed on samples with different composition and fibers. Based on the 4PBT, the equivalent flexural tensile strengths according to JCI-SF4 standard were calculated and the correlations with the results from 3PBT were defined.

Influence of the CO2–brine–rock interaction on the plastic zone of sandstone

During the long-term CO2 storage process, the CO2–brine–rock interaction (CBRI) may change the elastic-plastic behaviors of sandstone reservoirs, potentially leading to rock damage and CO2 leakage. A good understanding of the influence of the CBRI on the plastic zone of sandstone is crucial for evaluating the rock fracturing processes. In this paper, three-point bending tests were conducted under both monotonic and cyclic loading conditions, and the digital image correlation technique was used to analyze the elastic and plastic characteristics of the samples. The experimental results showed that the CBRI decreases the yield strength and corresponding crack mouth opening displacement by 25 % and 65%, respectively, thus increasing the probability of fracturing. Additionally, it was found that the CBRI enlarges the plastic zone by about 20 %. The size of the theoretical plastic zone in the sandstone sample for different loads was determined, and the ratio of the plastic zone size in the samples with CO2–brine saturation to that without CO2–brine saturation was found to be about 1.18. Finally, the mesoscale factors affecting the plastic zone size after CO2–brine saturation were analyzed. This study helps to understand the effect of the elastic-plastic behavior of sandstone on reservoir stability during long-term CO2 storage.

Effectiveness of the Concrete Equivalent Mortar Method for the Prediction of Fresh and Hardened Properties of Concrete

Modern concrete mix design is a complex process involving superplasticisers, fine powders, and fibres, requiring time and energy due to the high number of trial tests needed to achieve rheological properties in the fresh state. Concrete batching involves the extensive use of materials, time, and the testing of chemical admixtures, with various methodologies proposed. Therefore, in some instances, the required design properties (physical and mechanical) are not achieved, leading to the loss of resources. The concrete equivalent mortar (CEM) method was introduced to anticipate concrete behaviour at fresh and hardened states. Moreover, the CEM method saves time and costs by replacing coarse aggregates with an equivalent sand mass, resulting in an equivalent specific surface area at the mortar scale. This study aims to evaluate the performance of fibre in CEM and concrete and determine the relationships between the CEM and the concrete in fresh and hardened states. Steel and polypropylene fibres were used to design three series of mixtures (CEM and concrete): normal-strength concrete (NSC), high-strength concrete (HSC), high-strength concrete with fly ash (HSCFA), and equivalent normal-strength mortar (NSM), high-strength mortar (HSM), and high-strength mortar with fly ash (HSMFA). This study used three-point bending tests and digital image correlation to evaluate load and crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) curves. An analytical mode I crack propagation model was developed using a tri-linear stress–crack opening relationship. Post-cracking parameters were optimised using inverse analysis and compared to actual MC2010 characteristic values. The concrete slump is approximately half of the CEM flow; its compressive strength ranges between 78% and 82% of CEM strength, while its flexural strength is 60% of CEM strength. The post-cracking behaviour showed a significant difference attributed to the presence of aggregates in concrete. The fracture energy of concrete is 28.6% of the CEM fracture energy, while the critical crack opening of the concrete is 60% of that of the CEM.

Crack development and fracture performance of Recycled Powder Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC): Experimental investigation

In this paper, recycled concrete powder (RCP) and recycled brick powder (RBP), with particle sizes ranging from 10 to 130 μm, are used to completely replace the fine aggregate quartz sand at a ratio of 1:1. On this basis, recycled glass powder (RGP), with a discussed particle sizes range of 38–300 μm, is used to partially substitute the cementitious materials. Polyethylene (PE) fibers are used as the reinforcement in the Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC). Using the particle size range and substitution rate of RGP as variables, the crack development, crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD), fracture toughness and fracture energy of Recycled glass powder ECC (RGP-ECC) were discussed through a three-point bending experiment on a single-edge notch beam. A relatively comprehensive evaluation was made on the fracture performance and behavior of recycled ECC, and a suitable mix ratio of recycled powder ECC was given. The results show that the addition of various recycled powders will not affect the multi-slit cracking behavior of ECC, and the cracks can still spread densely, giving the specimen greater deformation capacity and CMOD. The total substitution of fine aggregate by RCP and RBP has a positive impact on the fracture toughness KICini, KICun and fracture energy (GF), but the addition of RGP has some minor negative effects. Among the particle size range and substitution rate of RGP, the influence of substitution rate is more obvious, and the fracture performance will show a downward trend after growth as the substitution rate increases. Choosing the appropriate RGP substitution rate and particle size range can maximize the recycling of construction waste while ensuring fracture performance.

Comparative fracture properties of ambient-cured geopolymer concrete containing four different fibers in mono and hybrid combinations using digital image correlation

This paper presents an investigation on the effects of four different fibers (polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), recycled polypropylene (RPP), and steel (S) fibers) on the fracture behaviour of ambient-cured fly ash geopolymer concrete (GPC). The four fibers were added into GPC by both mono at 1.0% volume and hybrid combinations with steel fiber at 0.5% of each other type of fiber. The full-field strain distribution and the crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) were monitored by digital image correlation (DIC) technology. The results reveal that adding fibers was effective in enhancing the fracture performance and hindering the cracking behaviour of GPC. Furthermore, 1.0% volume steel fiber exhibited to be most advantageous in enhancing the flexural strength by 100%, flexural toughness by 4000%, fracture energy by 3897%, and critical stress intensity factor by 98.8%. GPC with 1.0% volume PP fiber exhibited a characteristic length of 7909 mm, improving the characteristic length of GPC by about 2925%. Additionally, the CMOD was found to have a strong linear relationship with deflection which is unaffected by other factors. The presence of fibers significantly enhanced the ultimate strain. The steel fibers exhibited better performance in hindering the crack propagation. The fracture process zone (FPZ) characteristics differed between specimens with non-metallic and steel fibers, with the latter exhibiting more tortuous shapes and multiple cracks. Notably, a hybridization of steel and non-metallic fibers proves better than mono non-metallic fibers in improving strength, toughness, and ductility. This research provides valuable insights for concrete design and the selection of appropriate fibers based on specific requirements.

Mode I fracture propagation and post-peak behavior of sandstone: Insight from AE and DIC observation

Microcracks generated at the crack tip, particularly in quasi-brittle materials such as sandstone, give rise to a non-linear region known as the fracture process zone (FPZ), which cannot be analyzed using linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). To gain insights into the nonlinear fracturing behavior of rock, this study conducted three-point bending experiments on sandstone beams with prefabricated notch. Stable mode-Ⅰ fracture propagation during the post-peak stage was achieved by the monotonic increment of crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) measured by a clip gauge. The acoustic emission (AE) and digital image correlation (DIC) techniques were utilized to visually track the detailed crack propagation process from both micro and macro perspectives. Nonlinear fracture parameters, including FPZ length, were identified by AE and DIC measurements and compared with the theoretical calculation. A nonlinear fracture criterion relating applied load, equivalent crack length, and stress intensity factor were established, from which the theoretical CMOD-P curve at the post-peak stage were obtained and validated with experimental measurement from MTS machine. The results reveal that microcracks formulating the FPZ materialize in the pre-peak stage, with the majority emerging post-peak to facilitate the propagation of the traction-free crack and FPZ in the loading direction, as evidenced by AE locations and DIC displacement gradient. Throughout the crack propagation process, over 65 % of microcracks are estimated to be tensile mode based on both AF/RA and polarity analysis, aligning with anticipated outcomes from macroscopic three-point bending fracture tests. Energy dissipation primarily occurs within the FPZ to facilitate separation of crack faces, with the dissipated energy region advancing towards the beam boundary. By integrating AE source locations and DIC displacement gradient, the FPZ length of the 3-point-bending sandstone specimens is determined to be lp = 8.1 mm, slightly exceeding the theoretical FPZ lengths calculated by the Irwin model (lp = 7.0 mm) and the Dugdale-Barenblatt model (lp = 7.6 mm). Using a non-linear fracture criterion that incorporates the FPZ and employing the in-time equivalent crack length measured by AE and DIC as an intermediate variable, the theoretical applied load-crack length curve during the post-peak stage is calculated, showing close agreement with load cell measurements with a negligible error of approximately 2 %. Furthermore, the theoretical post-peak CMOD vs. load curve aligns with experimentally obtained results, demonstrating a non-linear crack propagation speed at a constant CMOD rate, wherein crack propagation speed decreases as crack length increases.

The role of hydrogen in promoting differences in fatigue crack growth rates observed in Type 304/304L stainless steel at elevated temperature

Hydrogen has been postulated to affect fatigue crack growth rates (FCGRs) in Type 304/304L stainless steel during exposure to high purity water (HPW) environments at elevated temperature. To assess this mechanism, FCGR testing was performed at elevated temperature (260°C) in air and pressurized hydrogen gas. Initial results indicate the measured FCGRs in hydrogen are up to 8x lower than those measured in air under comparable fatigue loading conditions. Post-test evaluation of compact tension specimens indicates crack mouth opening displacements and fracture surface morphologies generated in hydrogen that are consistent with those generated in HPW environments. Observations of crack tip blunting suggest the reduced FCGRs in elevated temperature hydrogen occur due to a decrease in the effective ΔK. Finite element plasticity modeling, using a hydrogen-dependent nonlinear kinematic hardening approach, supports the hypothesis that crack tip blunting and retarded FCGRs are due to a hydrogen-based change in cyclic behavior (e.g. cyclic creep) occurring ahead of the fatigue crack tip.

Finite element method for sustainable and resilient structures made with bar and fiber -reinforced EAFS concrete

Structural engineers have to address the climate change challenge by designing sustainable and resilient structures. At this juncture, Electric Arc Furnace Slags (EAFS), a steel-industry waste, are used in replacement of natural aggregates to enhance concrete properties. Moreover, steel and synthetic fibers are added to improve the postcracking behavior while the traditional bar reinforcement enhances the tensile performance. This makes EAFS concrete substantially ductile compared to normal concrete, which contributes to a higher structural resiliency, and hence minimizes functionality disruptions. However the use of fiber and bar -reinforced EAFS concrete in structures is still limited due to the uncertainties introduced by EAFS and fibers. This justify the development of advanced modeling techniques (ie. Finite element Analysis, FEA), which can be used to predict the behavior of EAFS concrete structures at the designing stage. This work build up from the extensive work of the coauthors in the testing of EAFS concrete and, more recently, in the developed FEA of fiber-reinforced EAFS concrete. In this paper the modeling of bar reinforcement is added to the FEA to study the behavior of structural elements made with fiber-reinforced EAFS concrete. The presented FEA is validated through full-scale experiments (four-point flexural test), which shows that the presented FEA is appropriate. The presented numerical model enables to study phenomena difficult to study from experiments or in-situ such as the cracking. It is worth noting that the addition of steel fibers reduced the crack mouth opening displacement in 29.3% and the depth of the cracks in 12.7% in the presented EAFS concrete.