Threat Of COVID-19 Research Articles

How Changes in Work and Family Role Salience Following COVID19 Threat Affect Turnover Intention

How Changes in Work and Family Role Salience Following COVID19 Threat Affect Turnover Intention

Managers’ Perceptions of and Behavioral Responses to COVID-19 Threats: A Role of Ethical Leadership

Managers’ Perceptions of and Behavioral Responses to COVID-19 Threats: A Role of Ethical Leadership

The Effect of Fox News on Health Behavior during COVID-19

AbstractIn the early weeks of the 2020 coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, the Fox News Channel advanced a skeptical narrative that downplayed the risks posed by the virus. We find that this narrative had significant consequences: in localities with higher Fox News viewership—exogenous due to random variation in channel positioning—people were less likely to adopt behaviors geared toward social distancing (e.g., staying at home) and consumed fewer goods in preparation (e.g., cleaning products, hand sanitizers, and masks). Using original survey data, we find that the effect of Fox News came not merely from its long-standing distrustful stance toward science, but also due to program-specific content that minimized the COVID-19 threat. Taken together, our results demonstrate the significant impact that misinformation in media coverage can exert on viewers’ beliefs and behavior, even in high-stakes situations.

Policy effectiveness analysis using system dynamics based on the threat of Covid-19 in Sukoharjo Regency, Indonesia

Policy effectiveness analysis using system dynamics based on the threat of Covid-19 in Sukoharjo Regency, Indonesia

Predictors of fear control related to COVID-19 among older population: an investigation on COVID-19 risk perception and health related quality of life during the pandemic

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to examine the role of demographic characteristics, general health and health related quality of life on the fear control. Also, the aim of study was to explore how older people percept the COVID-19 pandemic by using the component of the expanded parallel process model (EPPM), and how the possible perception may contribute to probable behavior responses to prevention and control of COVID-19.MethodsThe present study is a cross-sectional study that was conducted in Tabriz, a city in north of Iran from February to April 2021, the period that correspond with the fourth wave of COVID-19. To collect information, the Covid-19 risk perception questionnaire (based on EPPM model including efficacy, defensive responses, and perceived threat) and health related quality of life (HQOL) Short Form-36 questionnaire were used. Discriminate value was calculated to estimate fear control and danger control. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression were calculated to examine the effect of demographic characteristics, general health and health-related quality of life on the fear control.ResultsThe mean age of the 350 participants was 67.9 (6.4) years. A total of 83.1% of participants were engaged in danger control processes and 16.9% in fear control processes. According to the multivariable results, significant predictors for fear control were: gender 1.57 (95% CI 1.05–2.34, 0.025), education 7.38 (1.42–38.35, p = 0.017), economic status 1.31 (0.4–0.63, p = 0.029), and significant protective factors for fear control were: body pain 0.97 (0.94–0.99, p = 0.041), general health 0.96 (0.93–0.98, p = 0.032), physical health 0.94 (0.90–0.98) and total quality of life 0.024 (0.89–0.98).ConclusionsStrong associations of fear control were found with being female, being illiterate, and having a good economic status and also body pain, general health, physical health and total HQOL were significantly associated with danger control. Since, most of elderly populations have adequately higher perceptions of efficacy to counteract their threat perceptions to continue motivating these older people to engage in COVID-19 self-protective behaviors, it is necessary to emphasis on the susceptibility of target population and the severity of the COVID-19 threats.

COVID-19 and Tuberculosis: Unveiling the Dual Threat and Shared Solutions Perspective.

The year 2020 will likely be remembered as the year dominated by COVID-19, or coronavirus disease. The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for this pandemic, can be traced back to late 2019 in China. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the tuberculosis (TB) care system, reducing TB testing and reporting. This can be attributed to the disruption of TB services and restrictions on patient movement, consequently increasing TB-related deaths. This perspective review aims to highlight the intersection between COVID-19 and TB, highlighting their dual threat and identifying shared solutions to address these two infectious diseases effectively. There are several shared commonalities between COVID-19 and tuberculosis, particularly the transmission of their causative agents, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Both pathogens are transmitted via respiratory tract secretions. TB and COVID-19 are diseases that can be transmitted through droplets and airborne particles, and their primary target is typically the lungs. Regarding COVID-19 diagnostics, several methods are available for rapid and accurate detection. These include RT-PCR, which can provide results within two hours, and rapid antigen test kits that offer results in just a few minutes. The availability of point-of-care self-testing further enhances convenience. On the other hand, various approaches are employed for TB diagnostics to swiftly identify active TB. These include sputum microscopy, sputum for reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and chest X-rays. These methods enable the rapid detection of active TB on the same day, while culture-based testing may take significantly longer, ranging from 2 to 8 weeks. The utilization of diverse diagnostic tools helps ensure the timely identification and management of COVID-19 and TB cases. The quality of life of patients affected by COVID-19 and tuberculosis (TB) can be significantly impacted due to the nature of these diseases and their associated challenges. In conclusion, it is crucial to emphasize the urgent need to address the dual threat of COVID-19 and TB. Both diseases have devastated global health, and their convergence poses an even greater challenge. Collaborative efforts, research investments, and policy reforms are essential to tackle this dual threat effectively.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Intoxication Pattern by Drugs of Abuse in Egypt

Background: Drug abuse is considered a global and growing problem worldwide. Emergency medical care is required for acute intoxication, which adds to the threat of COVID-19. This study aims to evaluate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the pattern of acute toxicity in drug abuse patients admitted to National Environmental and Clinical Toxicology and Research Center (NECTR), Cairo University. Methods: This comparative study included 978 cases admitted to NECTR during 12 months before the COVID-19 pandemic (2018-2019) and 12 months during the pandemic (2020-2021). Results: The number of cases during the pandemic was lower than before; adults and men predominate in both periods. During the pandemic, cannabis, heroin, opium, and alcohol showed a mild increase, while the new synthetic drugs, tramadol, and pregabalin, showed a mild decrease. A significant increase in discharges and a decrease in intensive care unit (ICU) admissions were observed during the pandemic. Besides, more oxygen (O2) therapy was required, and more cases died on mechanical ventilation. The worst outcome was associated with old age, male gender, heroin and opium toxicity, and the highest score of poisoning severity. Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic had a definite reforming effect on the pattern of intoxication by drugs of abuse in NECTR, Egypt.

Self-uncertainty and conservatism during the COVID-19 pandemic predict perceived threat and engagement in risky social behaviors

Two studies ( N = 676) highlight the nuanced relationship between conservatism and adherence to COVID-19 policy and recommendations intended to slow the spread of the pandemic in the United States. Study 1 provided evidence that conservative Americans who felt uncertain about themselves and the future experienced elevated levels of symbolic threat (attacks to sociopolitical identity; e.g., the pandemic threatening American democracy) and realistic threat (concrete attacks to material resources or well-being; e.g., the pandemic threatening physical health) in comparison to their more certain counterparts. In Study 2, the association between this form of uncertainty and frequency of risky social behaviors (behaviors that increase the risk of virus transmission) was partially mediated by threat perception for Americans both low and high in conservatism. We discuss findings as an integration of the motivated social cognition framework and uncertainty-identity theory. While self-uncertainty was more associated with greater overall COVID-19 threat perception for Americans high (vs. low) in conservatism, threat perception and frequency of risky social behaviors were associated with self-uncertainty in a manner that is consistent with prevailing liberal and conservative norms.

Prevalence and pattern of intimate partner violence during COVID-19 pandemic among Nigerian adults.

Our objectives were to determine the prevalence, pattern, and associated sociodemographic, psychosocial, and COVID-19-related factors associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) during the COVID-19 pandemic among Nigerian adults. We conducted an online survey among Nigerian adults (n = 994, aged 18-72 years) who completed the HARK questionnaire, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Perceived Social Support Scale, and factors associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Logistic regression was carried out with presence or absence of IPV as the outcome variable. Prevalence of IPV among women was 57.5%, while it was 42.5% among men, during the COVID-19 pandemic. IPV was significantly associated with younger age; having no children; increased threat of income due to COVID-19; anxiety; depression; reduced frequency of accessing COVID-19 updates via TV, radio, and news outlet; self-isolation due to COVID-19 symptoms; and self-reported impact of COVID-19 on recreation. A high monthly income, presence of anxiety and depressive symptoms, threat of COVID-19 to income, and self-reported impact of COVID-19 on recreation increased the odds of experiencing IPV. Our findings indicate that the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the experience of IPV among adult Nigerians. The implications of our findings are that both men and women were affected by IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic. Modalities for reducing IPV and its aftermath among this population should include online psychosocial support measures, which may offer anonymity and reduced stigma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Heroes of The Road: The Struggles of the Tricycle Drivers Amidst COVID-19 Lockdown

Despite the threat of COVID-19, the people were encouraged by their hardships and fortitude to be strong and continue with life. This research study focused on the struggles of tricycle drivers amidst the COVID-19 lockdown. Tricycle drivers ensure the safety of their passengers, and they make the ride sweeter with their beautiful smiles. Everything seemed to be fine until the pandemic came. Because of lockdowns, people cannot leave their homes except for healthcare workers and other essential workers. A phenomenological approach was used in this qualitative study to assess the experiences of the five tricycle drivers and was chosen using an inclusion criterion. The data were thematically analyzed using Lichtman's 3Cs. The result revealed the themes that the data identified showed are mental wellbeing with subthemes of anxiety, depression, and uncertainty about the future, financial difficulties with subthemes of loss of income and family survival, and positive outlook by looking forward to recovery with subthemes on government support and strong family ties [1-3]. The lockdowns implemented caused a temporary halt in the transportation and mobility of drivers. Because of those restrictions, the only source of income for the drivers was also affected, and they struggled to survive. In conclusion, the government must be equipped to handle the difficulties that may arise during the pandemic. The government's support to the drivers and other sectors of society must be visible, and the government needs to catch up when the pandemic strikes. Government should look into the welfare of this sector because they are considered the blood of the economy. The government should always be ready when a disaster strikes and empower its citizen much more during the pandemic [1]

Understanding Citizens’ Tweets During and After the COVID-19 Pandemic in Saudi Arabia: A Thematic Analysis Study

The coronavirus began in December 2019; in Wuhan, China, later the virus spread rapidly within a relatively short period of time, causing a global pandemic. Therefore, the Saudi government responded to the threat of COVID-19 from the start by imposing a lockdown to curb the number of affected patients and to prevent the fast-spreading virus, such as turning to distance learning, banning travel, imposing curfews, and postponing social activities. As social activities and social communication were affected by the crisis, people in Saudi Arabia tend to increasingly use social media platforms, one of which is Twitter. Little is known about the Saudis’ reactions on Twitter during COVID-19 and after. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate how Saudi Twitter users express their feelings qualitatively during and after COVID-19 outbreaks. For the scope of this study, Arabic tweets related to COVID-19 expressed by Saudi citizens were collected from Twitter using the web scraping service Apify. The data covered the periods of COVID-19 from the 1st of January 2020 to the 7th of July 2022. The selection of these tweets was primarily based on trending hashtags and keywords populated from Saudi Arabia. A total of 11,900 Arabic tweets were obtained, and only 473 tweets were considered in this study. A qualitative thematic analysis of Saudis’ tweets resulted in the identification of five main themes: 1) negative attitudes (i.e., fear, frustration, and sadness, 309, 65%); 2) positive attitudes (56, 12%); 3) advise-giving (48, 10%); 4) humour (34, 7%); and 5) information-seeking (26, 5%). These findings suggest that Saudi governmental agencies should actively engage in two-way communication with the public, provide trustworthy information, and manage the crisis based on the public’s needs. Our present research has shown that Twitter is a valuable source of reality, reflecting unique experiences among its users. Thematic analysis has proven to be a useful approach in providing insightful information about the Saudis’ needs in times of crisis and after. In addition, governments and health authorities can have a better understanding of the public's needs and thus prepare their crisis management strategies in order to relieve the public’s psychological pressures.

Differences in perceived threat and trauma in children during the COVID-19 pandemic

BackgroundThe past 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic were stressful for most children and adolescents; some children may have experienced a high level of stress and trauma. To date, no study has examined self-reported stress and trauma levels due to COVID-19 in children. This study aimed to assess perceived threat, exposure and trauma symptoms in children aged 7–13 years. In addition, we explored whether parent-reported factors could predict a higher risk of COVID-19 vulnerability in their children.MethodCross-sectional data were collected from 752 children to assess COVID-19 threat, exposure and trauma symptoms using the self- and parent-reported Child and Adolescent Trauma Screening Self-Report (CATS) Trauma questionnaire. We used exploratory analyses (factor analysis of mixed data and hierarchical clustering) to identify subgroups (i.e., clusters) of children sharing similar characteristics in the dataset. Linear regression modeling was applied to determine the likelihood of higher threat and vulnerability in children with parent-reported COVID-19 threat, exposure, CATS trauma symptoms, behaviors on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and posttraumatic growth (PTG).ResultsWe identified a high-risk group of children reporting clinically relevant trauma symptoms and COVID-19-related fears. Parents’ reports of trauma could be used to identify children at high risk.ConclusionsApproximately 25% of children reported moderate to clinically relevant levels of trauma symptom. It is especially important to offer adequate support to these children to ease the trauma and prevent their symptoms from developing into psychopathology.

NAUNEHAL; Integrated immunization and MNCH interventions: A quasi-experimental study-Protocol.

Great improvements in the health of newborns, children, and women in Pakistan are needed. A large body of literature has demonstrated that the majority of maternal, newborn, and child deaths are preventable with essential health strategies including immunization, nutrition interventions, and child health interventions. Despite the importance of these interventions for the health of women and children, access to services continues to be a barrier. Furthermore, demand for services also contributes to low coverage of essential health interventions. Given the emerging threat of COVID-19 coupled with already weak maternal and child health, delivering effective and feasible nutrition and immunization services to communities, and increasing demand and uptake of services is a pressing and important need. This quasi-experimental study aims to improve health service delivery and increase uptake. The study included four main intervention strategies including community mobilization, mobile health teams offering MNCH and immunization services, engagement of the private sector, and testing of a comprehensive health, nutrition, growth, and immunization app, Sehat Nishani, for a period of 12 months. The target group of the project were women of reproductive age (15-49 years) and children under-five. The project was implemented in three union councils (UCs) in Pakistan including Kharotabad-1(Quetta District, Balochistan), Bhana Mari (Peshawar District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and Bakhmal Ahmedzai (Lakki Marwat district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). Propensity score matching based on size, location, health facilities, and key health indicators of UC was conducted to identify three matched UCs. A household baseline, midline, endline and close-out assessment will be conducted for evaluating coverage of interventions as well as the knowledge, attitude, and practices of the community in the MNCH and COVID-19 context. Descriptive and inferential statistics will be used to test hypotheses. As well, a detailed cost-effectiveness analysis will be conducted to generate costing data for these interventions to effectively inform policymakers and stakeholder on feasibility of the model. Trial registration: NCT05135637.

Validity and reliability of the COVID-19 Anxiety Syndrome Scale in Canadian dentists.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a high level of mental health problems for the population worldwide including healthcare workers. Several studies have assessed these using measurements for anxiety for general populations. The COVID-19 Anxiety Syndrome Scale (C-19ASS) is a self-report measure developed to assess maladaptive forms of coping with COVID-19 (avoidance, threat monitoring and worry) among a general adult population in the United States. We used it in a prospective cohort study of COVID-19 incidence rates in practising Canadian dentists. We therefore need to ensure that it is valid for dentists in French and English languages. This study aimed to evaluate the validity of the C-19ASS in that population. Cross-sectional data from the January 2021 monthly follow-up in our prospective cohort study were used. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed. The results of EFA revealed a 2-factor structure solution that explained 47% of the total variance. The CFA showed a good model fit on the data in both English and French languages. The Cronbach's alpha indicated acceptable levels of reliability. Furthermore, the C-19ASS showed excellent divergent validity from the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) scale. The C-19ASS is valid and reliable instrument to measure COVID-19-related anxiety in English and French among Canadian dentists. This validated measure will contribute to understanding of the mental health impact of the pandemic on dentists in Canada and enable the dental regulatory authorities and organizations to intervene to help dentists.

Impact of Covid-19 and pandemic restrictions on post infarction myocardial scar evaluated on cardiac magnetic resonance

Abstract Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: None. Introduction Italy was one of the first nations in the world to face the threat of COVID-19. Data suggest that mortality from cardiovascular causes increased during the pandemic period, compared with a reduction of the number of hospitalizations for the same cause1–2. Purpose Extension of myocardial damage after a cardiac ischemic event is strongly related to patient's short- and long-term prognosis. Aim of this retrospective study is to evaluate the impact of COVID-19 and pandemic restrictions on the extension of the post-infarct myocardial scar, assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Methods Fifty consecutive patients hospitalized for acute myocardial infarction who underwent CMR were retrospectively enrolled: 30 patients in the pre-COVID period (from January 2015 to February 2020) and 20 in the pandemic period (from March 2020 to June 2021). We selected only patients with no previous history of ischemic heart disease. Clinical, anamnestic and imaging data (echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance) were collected. Results Patients of the two groups did not differ in clinical characteristics, except for the absence of women in the pandemic group (23% vs 0%, p = 0.02). Drugs and treatments used, severity of coronary artery disease and echocardiographic parameters were similar in both groups. The number of segments with transmural fibrosis was larger in COVID group (5.9 vs 4.2, p = 0.05, considering 17 myocardial segments on a bull eyes map). Furthermore in COVID group end diastolic volume was larger (101.3 vs 86.9 ml/mq, p = 0.08) and left ejection fraction was lower (36.0 vs 41.4%, p = 0.18), although not statistically significative. Right ventricle ejection fraction was significatively lower (59.0 vs 63.2%, p = 0.04). Conclusion Patients admitted during pandemic waves had a larger myocardial scar, bigger left ventricular volume and lower ejection fraction. According to literature, this have mainly been caused by the long presentation time from symptoms to hospital admission3. Considering that the extension of the post-infarct myocardial scar visible on cardiac magnetic resonance imaging strongly correlates with the short- and long-term prognosis4-5, these data suggest that COVID 19 had and will have in the coming years a significant impact on mortality from myocardial infarction.

What Motivates People to Adopt Personal Health Record? Understanding the Effect of Innovation and Context-Specific Threat on Personal Health Record Adoption Intention

Personal Health Record (PHR) allows individuals to access, manage, and share health-related information while actively participating in personal care management. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and changes imposed by the government on the population enhanced the disparities among citizens’ ability to access healthcare. Thus, the purpose of this study was to provide an operating mechanism for understanding the effects of COVID-19 on individuals’ PHR adoption intention based on an extended research model, including the Innovation and Diffusion Theory and Technology Acceptance Model. Structural equation modeling was employed to analyze the research model, using 390 valid responses from Taiwan. Findings indicated relative advantage, compatibility, ease of use, and personal innovativeness significantly influence perceived usefulness. Second, relative advantage, compatibility, ease of use, personal innovativeness, and perceived threat of COVID-19 significantly affect attitude toward PHR. Third, perceived usefulness and attitude positively influence PHR adoption intention. The current study provides policymakers insight into how Taiwanese individuals’ psychological, technological, and pandemic-related threat affect their willingness to use the PHR system during the pandemic to receive better care that could eventually improve their quality of life.

Prediction of psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic using linear and non-linear methodologies: Importance of COVID-19 threat perception, emotional competencies and resilience

The presence of a mental or physical illness prior to the pandemic, the perceived threat from COVID-19, resilience or emotional intelligence may influence the onset or increase of psychopathology during the COVID-19 lockdown. The aim was to assess predictors of psychopathology by comparing two statistical methodologies (one linear and one non-linear). MethodA total of 802 Spanish participants (65.50% female) completed the questionnaires independently after signing informed consent. Psychopathology, perceived threat, resilience and emotional intelligence were assessed. Descriptive statistics, hierarchical regression models (HRM) and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) were conducted. ResultsThe data obtained through the HRM showed that the presence of a previous mental illness, low resilience and emotional clarity, high emotional attention and repair, and COVID-19 threat perception predicted 51% of the variance in psychopathology. Results obtained from QCA showed that different combinations of these variables explained 37% of high levels of psychopathology and 86% of low levels of psychopathology, highlighting how the presence of prior mental illness, high emotional clarity, high resilience, low emotional attention and low perceived COVID-19 threat play a key role in explaining psychopathology. ConclusionsThese aspects will help promote personal resources to buffer psychopathology in lockdown situations.

Pandemic Politics: Immigration, Framing, and Covid-19

AbstractThe covid-19 pandemic has revived a longstanding, and understudied, trope in American politics: the association of immigrants with disease. There has been a great deal of scholarship on the economic, cultural, and criminal threat frames attached to immigrant groups in media coverage, but little to date has specifically examined how national and local sources have framed covid-19 in the context of immigrant communities. In this paper we analyze the prevalence of two different framings of the pandemic in national and local online news outlets over the first year of the pandemic: immigration as a public health threat to the nation, and covid-19 as a threat to immigrant communities within the nation. We find significant differences between national and local coverage, with the former more likely to frame immigration as a covid-19 threat, while local news outlets were more likely to discuss the threat the virus posed to already marginalized immigrant communities.

Virtual Internship and Work-Integrated Learning Outcomes of the Hospitality Management Students

To adapt to the current pandemic, the higher education system in hospitality management must shift away from traditional classroom to online classroom settings. Successful hospitality management education requires internship experiences as it eases the students’ transition between education and employment. However, delivering it through virtual channels presents special challenges. Thus, this research aimed to assess how hospitality management students view the virtual internship (VI) and work-integrated learning (WIL) outcomes during pandemic. This study employed descriptive method to identify the different variables of the study and presents quantitative research that utilized online survey method to gather data. The respondents of the study were the fourth year Bachelor of Science in Hospitality Management (BSHM) students (n=35) from the College of Business and Management of the Mindoro State University-Calapan City Campus who undertaken the virtual internship for the second semester of AY 2021-2022. Results of the study showed that VI was the best alternative to face-to-face internship as the students felt secured and less exposed on the threats of COVID-19, however, the VI felt short of the means for them to ask questions and clarify difficulties as well as failing to form networking opportunities. Students also believed it enhanced their skills and have advanced in their practical knowledge but somehow, they lack in creating opportunity to work in a genuine hospitality industry setting. It is recommended to conduct a hybrid internship, both virtual and on-site, to create a chance for the hospitality management students to have an authentic workplace setting.

Early Responses of Intercity Travelers to The Threat of COVID-19: The Case of Turkey

Mobility triggered spread of the COVID-19 pandemic more, thus, an immediate precaution restricted intercity travels. Later, a “New Normal (NN)” concept rose as a new paradigm for travel decision and mode choices with health concerns. Changes in intercity mobility characteristics due to pandemic in Turkey were evaluated via an online survey by the General Directorate of Turkish Highways (GDH) with 1012 participants with intercity travel experience before pandemic. Respondents were investigated for their intercity travel decisions and modes during early restrictions and the NN stages. The main objectives included better understanding of the impacts of the pandemic on current and future travel behavior, activity engagement, and overall trip making. Revealed travel preferences before pandemic, during early restrictions and the NN stages, were evaluated employing non-parametric statistical tests to identify the intercity travel patterns. In-depth analyses were performed comparing the behavior due to the risk perception and explore the relationships between the variables. While 55% of those surveyed had not traveled during the early restrictions stage of COVID-19, this rate dropped to 38% during the NN stage. Results confirmed significant modal shifts to private modes and increased inequality among females and elderly. Air travelers stated a stronger return back to original mode after pandemic, when compared to rail or bus. It is seen that COVID- 19 pandemic has not only affected people emotionally and socially, but also changed their mobility behaviors and mode preferences because of both restrictions on intercity travels and health concerns while traveling.