Coverage In Urban Areas Research Articles

Comparison Of Effectiveness Benefits Of Providing Young Papaya Fruit Extract And Breast Care For Normal Postpartum Mother's Breast Milk Production: Systematic Review

Background: The consumption of breast milk in Indonesia is still very concerning, the household health survey (SKRT) explains that in 2014 there was only 4-12% of breast milk coverage in urban areas. In 2015, the amount of formula feeding to babies aged 0-6 months was 16.7%, then increased in 2017 to 27.9%. Objective: To determine the comparison of the effectiveness of the benefits of giving young papaya extract and breast care to the production of normal postpartum mother's milk. Methods: This study uses the Systematic Review or Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method and uses the PRISMA protocol as data analysis. Results: The results of data analysis on the effectiveness of young papaya fruit extracts were more effective, with effect size values ​​of 1.02 and the 1.1 Conclusion: The provision of young papaya fruit extract is more effective against breast milk production.

A spatial feature engineering algorithm for creating air pollution health datasets

Air pollution is one of the significant causes of mortality and morbidity every year. In recent years, many researchers have focused their attention on the associations of air pollution and health. Air pollution data and health data is used in these studies and feature engineering is used to create and optimize the air quality and health features. In order to associate these datasets, the residential address, community/county/block/city, and hospital/school address are utilized as association parameters. A spatial problem is raised when the Air Quality Monitoring (AQM) stations are concentrated in urban areas within the regions, and the residential address or any other spatial parameter is used. An intersection of AQM stations coverage in urban areas is observed where AQM stations are operating in close proximity, which raises the question of how to associate the patients with the relevant AQM station. In most studies, the distance of patients to the AQM stations is also not taken into account. In this study, we propose a spatial feature engineering algorithm with functions to find the coordinates for patients, calculate distances to the AQM stations, and associate patient records to the nearest AQM station. Hence, removing the limitations of current air pollution health datasets. The proposed algorithm is applied to a case study in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The results show that the proposed algorithm can generate air pollution health datasets efficiently, and it also provides the radius facility to exclude the patients who are situated far away from the stations.

The bottlenecks and causes, and potential solutions for municipal sewage treatment in China

AbstractSince about the 1990s China has achieved remarkable progress in urban sanitation. The country has built very extensive infrastructure for wastewater treatment, with 94.5% treatment coverage in urban areas and legally mandated nation-wide full nutrient removal implemented. However, municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in China are still confronted with issues rooted in the unique sewage characteristics. This study compares energy recovery, cost of nutrient removal and sludge production between Chinese municipal WWTPs and those in countries with longer wastewater treatment traditions, and highlights the cause-effect relationships between Chinese sewage characteristics – high inorganic suspended solids (ISS) loads, and low COD and C/N ratio, and municipal WWTP process performance in China. Integrated design and operation guidelines for municipal WWTPs are imperative in relation to the unique sewage characteristics in China. Cost-effective measures and solutions are proposed in the paper, and the potential benefits of improving the sustainability of municipal WWTPs in China are estimated.

Prediction of Satellite Shadowing in Smart Cities with Application to IoT.

The combination of satellite direct reception and terrestrial 5G infrastructure is essential to guarantee coverage in satellite based-Internet of Things, mainly in smart cities where buildings can cause high power losses. In this paper, we propose an accurate and fast graphical method for predicting the satellite coverage in urban areas and SatCom on-the-move scenarios. The aim is to provide information that could be useful in the IoT network planning process, e.g., in the decision of how many terrestrial repeaters are really needed and where they should be placed. Experiments show that the shadowed areas predicted by the method correspond almost perfectly with experimental data measured from an Eutelsat satellite in the urban area of Barcelona.

Domestic Wastewater Treatment: Difficulties and Reasons, and Prospective Solutions—China as an Example

During the last three decades, China has attained noteworthy advances in municipal sanitation. The country has constructed a highly large infrastructure for treating wastewater, with 94.5% treatment coverage in urban areas and legally mandated nation-wide full nutrient removal applied. Nevertheless, domestic wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are yet defied with problems rooted in the singular sewage properties. Recently, Cao et al. [1] compared energy recovery, price of nutrient reduction and sludge formation among Chinese urban WWTPs and those in nations with longer wastewater treatment traditions, and underlined the cause-effect relationships among Chinese sewage properties—high inorganic suspended solids (ISS) loads, and low COD and C/N ratio, and municipal WWTP process performance in China. Combined design and running guidelines for domestic WWTPs are crucial in relation to the singular sewage properties in China. Cost-efficient actions and solutions are suggested by Cao et al. [1], and the likely advantages of enhancing the sustainability of urban WWTPs in China are evaluated.

Using the Geographical Information System (GIS) Methods in Determination of Landuse Changes at Batu Sapi, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia

The study area is in the southwestern part of the Sandakan city center bounded by latitude 05° 48’ until 05° 52’ N and longitude 117° 58’ until 118° 03’ E and covers the area of 100km2. The study area comprises the Sandakan Formation which is overlain by the Quaternary Alluvium. The landuse changes is done through the Geographical Information System (GIS) method by using the ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) software. There are four main stages involved in the GIS method to produce the thematic maps. Landuse map of the year 1980 and 2010 have been used to study the changes at the study area. The results show the percentage of urban area coverage have increased, while the village area have the highest percentage of land diminution. So, with the model of the evolution of landuse, it calls for landuse planning in the study area is more sustainable in the future.

A Near-Optimal UAV-Aided Radio Coverage Strategy for Dense Urban Areas

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) may be used for providing seamless network coverage in urban areas for improving the performance of conventional cellular networks. Given the predominantly line-of-sight channel of drones, UAV-aided seamless coverage becomes particularly beneficial in case of emergency situations. However, a single UAV having a limited cruising capability is unable to provide seamless long-term coverage, multiple drones relying on sophisticated recharging and reshuffling schemes are necessary. In this context, both the positioning and the flight strategy directly affect the efficiency of the system. Hence, we first introduce a novel UAV energy consumption model, based on which an energy-efficiency-based objective function is derived. Second, we propose an energy-efficient rechargeable UAV deployment strategy optimized under a seamless coverage constraint. Explicitly, a two-stage joint optimization algorithm is conceived for solving both the optimal UAV deployment and the cyclic UAV recharging and reshuffling strategy. Our simulation results quantify the efficiency of our proposed algorithm.

Assessment of vaccine coverage and associated factors among children in urban agglomerations of Kochi, Kerala, India.

Context:Urban population in India is growing exponentially. The public sector urban health delivery system has so far been limited in its reach and is far from adequate.Aims:This study aims to estimate routine immunization coverage and associated factors among children (12–23 months and 60–84 months) in the urban Kochi Metropolitan Area of Kerala.Settings and Design:A cross-sectional study was conducted in Kochi Metropolitan area.Materials and Methods:A cluster sampling technique was used to collect data on immunization status from 310 children aged between 12 and 23 months and 308 children aged between 60 and 84 months.Statistical Analysis:Crude coverage details for each vaccine were estimated using percentages and confidence intervals. Bivariate and multivariate analysis were conducted to identify factors associated with immunization coverage.Results:Among the children aged 12–23 months, 89% (95% CI 85.5%-92.5%) were fully immunized, 10% were partially immunized, and 1% unimmunized. Less than 10 years of schooling among mothers (OR 2.40, 95% CI 1.20–4.81) and living in a nuclear family (OR 1.72, 95% CI 1.06–3.14) were determinants associated with partial or unimmunization of children as per multivariate analysis. The coverage of individual vaccines was found to decrease after 18 months from 90% to 75% at 4–5 years for Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus (DPT) booster. Bivariate analysis found lower birth order and belonging to the Muslim religion as significant factors for this decrease.Conclusion:Education of the mother and nuclear families emerged as areas of vulnerability in urban immunization coverage. Inadequate social support and competing priorities with regard to balancing work and home probably lead to delay or forgetfulness in vaccination. Therefore, a locally contextualized comprehensive strategy with strengthening of the primary health system is needed to improve the immunization coverage in urban areas.

Dual-Polarized Spatial–Temporal Propagation Measurement and Modeling in UMa O2I Scenario at 3.5 GHz

Outdoor-to-indoor (O2I) coverage in urban areas by using the sub-6 GHz (sub-6G) band is important in the fifth generation (5G) mobile communication system. The spatial-temporal propagation characteristics in different polarizations in the 5G spectrum are crucial for the network coverage. In this paper, we measured the urban macrocell (UMa) O2I channels at 3.5 GHz in the space, time, and polarization domains simultaneously. The channel sounder utilized two ±45° polarized antenna arrays. The transmitter (TX) was placed on the rooftop of a five-storey building to emulate a base station and the receiver (RX) was moved in the corridors on different floors in another building to emulate user equipments (UEs). We obtained the small-scale parameters of excess delay, power, and azimuth/elevation of arrival (AoA/EoA) of individual multipath components (MPCs), the propagation profiles of azimuth/elevation power spectrum (APS/EPS) and power delay profile (PDP), and the large-scale parameters including azimuth/elevation spread of arrival (ASA/ESA) and delay spread (DS). Based on the measurement results, we propose the lifted-superposed Laplace distribution (LS-Laplace) function and lifted-superposed normal distribution (LS-Normal) function to model the APS and EPS, respectively, and a three-phase model for the PDP. We find that the ASA and ESA follow the lognormal distribution and the DS has a Rayleigh distribution. We also reveal the impact of surrounding environments and polarization on the channel propagation profiles and statistical characteristics. The measurement results and channel models in this paper provide reference for the design and deployment of the 5G system to exploit the spatial and polarization diversities in the UMa O2I scenario.

New Empirical Path Loss Model for 28 GHz and 38 GHz Millimeter Wave in Indoor Urban under Various Conditions

Due to rapid development in mobile communication technology in recent years, the demand for high quality and high capacity networks with thorough coverage has become a major necessity. Several models have been developed for predicting wireless signal coverage in urban areas, but these models suffer from inadequately calculating certain conditions, such as weather and building materials, especially window size. In this paper, we propose a new path loss prediction model based on the measurement of new indicators, such as window size, temperature, and humidity conditions, after which an extensive statistical analysis using a linear regression technique was implemented in order to validate the new indicators. As the new indicators were incorporated into the Okumura model to derive a new path loss model, the results showed that the proposed model provides an accurate prediction of the received signal strength in a given propagation environment. Our model enhanced the prediction of path loss by 10% when compared to the Okumura and by 15% when compared to the COST-Hata.

Determinants of National Health Insurance enrolment in Ghana across the life course: Are the results consistent between surveys?

BackgroundGhana is currently undergoing a profound demographic transition, with large increases in the number of older adults in the population. Older adults require greater levels of healthcare as illness and disability increase with age. Ghana therefore provides an important and timely case study of policy implementation aimed at improving equal access to healthcare in the context of population ageing.This paper examines the determinants of National Health Insurance (NHIS) enrolment in Ghana, using two different surveys and distinguishing between younger and older adults. Two surveys are used in order to investigate consistency in insurance enrolment. The comparison between age groups is aimed at understanding whether determinants differ for older adults. Previous studies have mainly focused on the enrolment of young and middle aged adults; thus by widening the focus to include older adults and taking into account differences in their demographic and socio-economic characteristics this paper provides a unique contribution to the literature.MethodsUsing data from the 2007-2008 Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) and the 2012-2013 Ghanaian Living Standards Survey (GLSS) the determinants of NHIS enrolment among younger adults (aged 18-49) and older adults (aged 50 and over) are compared. Logistic regression explores the socio-economic and demographic determinants of NHIS enrolment and multinomial logistic regression investigates the correlates of insurance drop out.ResultsSimilar results for people aged 18-49 and people aged 50 plus were revealed, with older adults having a slightly lower probability of dropping out of insurance coverage compared to younger adults. Both surveys confirm that education and wealth increase the likelihood of NHIS affiliation. Further, residential differences in insurance coverage are found, with greater NHIS coverage in urban areas. The findings give assurance that both datasets (SAGE and GLSS) are suitable for research on insurance affiliation in Ghana.ConclusionThe paper indicates that although the gap in coverage among rich and poor and urban and rural residents appears to have decreased, these factors still determine NHIS coverage of younger and older adults. The same holds for education. Increasing efforts are needed to ensure equal access to healthcare.

Transit-oriented development and air quality in Chinese cities: A city-level examination

In this paper, we aim to see whether transit-oriented development (TOD) in Chinese cities is associated with better air quality. We first identify 37 Chinese cities with existing urban rail transit and/or bus rapid transit (BRT) systems. For each of these cities we generate performance-based TOD indicators – including measures such as urban area coverage, population coverage, street network density and land use mix within station catchment areas – and construct composite TOD indices for each city using those indicators. We also collect daily air quality index (AQI) data from the Ministry of Environmental Protection of China over the entire year 2014 for 152 cities and calculate annual and seasonal average AQIs for each city. Regression models provide some evidence that rail-based TOD is associated with better air quality, after controlling for meteorological, demographic and economic characteristics. BRT-based TOD shows no significant relationship.

The effect of young children's faeces disposal practices on child growth: evidence from 34 countries.

To characterize the relationship between child faeces disposal and child growth in low- and middle-income countries. We analysed caregiver responses and anthropometric data from Demographic and Health Surveys (2005-2014) for 202614 children under five and 82949 children under two to examine the association between child faeces disposal and child growth. Child faeces disposal in an improved toilet was associated with reduced stunting for children under five [adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR)=0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.89-0.92] and a 0.12 increase in height-for-age z-score (HAZ; 95% CI: 0.10-0.15) among all households. Among households with improved sanitation access, practicing improved child faeces disposal was still associated with a decrease in stunting (aPR=0.94, 95% CI: 0.91-0.96) and a 0.09 increase in HAZ (95% CI: 0.06-0.13). Improved child faeces disposal was also associated with reductions in underweight and wasting, and an increase in weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), but not an increase in weight-for-height z-score (WHZ). Community coverage level of improved child faeces disposal was also associated with stunting, with 75-100% coverage associated with the greatest reduction in stunting. Child faeces disposal in an unimproved toilet was associated with reductions in underweight and wasting, but not stunting. Improved child faeces disposal practices could achieve greater reductions in child undernutrition than improving toilet access alone. Additionally, the common classification of child faeces disposal as 'safe' regardless of the type of toilet used for disposal may underestimate the benefits of disposal in an improved toilet and overestimate the benefits of disposal in an unimproved toilet.

Area-based socioeconomic factors and Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination among teen boys in the United States

BackgroundThis study is the first to examine associations between several area-based socioeconomic factors and human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine uptake among boys in the United States (U.S.).MethodsData from the 2012-2013 National Immunization Survey-Teen restricted-use data were analyzed to examine associations of HPV vaccination initiation (receipt of ≥1 dose) and series completion (receipt of three doses) among boys aged 13-17 years (N = 19,518) with several individual-level and ZIP Code Tabulation Area (ZCTA) census measures. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate the odds of HPV vaccination initiation and series completion separately.ResultsIn 2012-2013 approximately 27.9% (95% CI 26.6%-29.2%) of boys initiated and 10.38% (95% CI 9.48%-11.29%) completed the HPV vaccine series. Area-based poverty was not statistically significantly associated with HPV vaccination initiation. It was, however, associated with series completion, with boys living in high-poverty areas (≥20% of residents living below poverty) having higher odds of completing the series (AOR 1.22, 95% CI 1.01-1.48) than boys in low-poverty areas (0-4.99%). Interactions between race/ethnicity and ZIP code-level poverty indicated that Hispanic boys living in high-poverty areas had a statistically significantly higher odds of HPV vaccine initiation (AOR 1.43, 95% CI 1.03-1.97) and series completion (AOR 1.56, 95% CI 1.05-2.32) than Hispanic boys in low-poverty areas. Non-Hispanic Black boys in high poverty areas had higher odds of initiation (AOR 2.23, 95% CI 1.33-3.75) and completion (AOR 2.61, 95% CI 1.06-6.44) than non-Hispanic Black boys in low-poverty areas. Rural/urban residence and population density were also significant factors, with boys from urban or densely populated areas having higher odds of initiation and completion compared to boys living in non-urban, less densely populated areas.ConclusionHigher HPV vaccination coverage in urban areas and among racial/ethnic minorities in areas with high poverty may be attributable to factors such as vaccine acceptance, health-care practices, and their access to HPV vaccines through the Vaccines for Children Program, which provides free vaccines to uninsured and under-insured children. Given the low HPV vaccination rates among boys in the U.S., these results provide important evidence to inform public health interventions to increase HPV vaccination.

A Revolutionary Approach to Cloud Computing, Security and its User Compliance

Objective: This paper focus on the ways to initiate service providers to create safer clouds by simply securing cloud computing servers, inputting a security scanner before saving onto a cloud and finally before accessing a cloud, the use of a password or key to enter your cloud account. Methods: This paper is an extensive research in the cloud security through password might be advanced such as bio-metric scanners, finger-print scanners already used on most mobile devices and is found to be a safe way to store data on a device like a hard-drive. The major complexity of cloud computing is security privacy. Security compliances are like protection of data, and check the usage and applicability of cloud computing providers. Findings: The main theme of cloud computing has various courageous for the users and this facility providers regarding security. To counter these problems, such as lack of network, this disrupts a server linking onto a cloud computing server because of lack of network coverage etc. This can cause a cloud to lose all of its information and sadly its stored data as a cloud server might depict a system crashing, (which can cause all stored data to delete, if the cloud user has not saved its data onto the cloud server) the best way is if the service providers of a cloud and also its users work with each other to achieve ultimate security. The best thing for a user is to report issues regarding cloud to their service providers (cloud and also their internet providers). The solution for network availability is simply the creation and viability of web facility to cloud users. Improvements: Web users and data facility providers require to examine the way to control issues and apply various techniques to prevent loss of signal, such as improve their coverage in areas hard to reach and provide more concise network signal coverage in urban areas. In fact, a signal enhancer has been hard to reach areas such as rural areas. This requires an advanced algorithm from computer programmers.

A Revolutionary Approach to Cloud Computing, Security and its User Compliance

Objective: This paper focus on the ways to initiate service providers to create safer clouds by simply securing cloud computing servers, inputting a security scanner before saving onto a cloud and finally before accessing a cloud, the use of a password or key to enter your cloud account. Methods: This paper is an extensive research in the cloud security through password might be advanced such as bio-metric scanners, finger-print scanners already used on most mobile devices and is found to be a safe way to store data on a device like a hard-drive. The major complexity of cloud computing is security privacy. Security compliances are like protection of data, and check the usage and applicability of cloud computing providers. Findings: The main theme of cloud computing has various courageous for the users and this facility providers regarding security. To counter these problems, such as lack of network, this disrupts a server linking onto a cloud computing server because of lack of network coverage etc. This can cause a cloud to lose all of its information and sadly its stored data as a cloud server might depict a system crashing, (which can cause all stored data to delete, if the cloud user has not saved its data onto the cloud server) the best way is if the service providers of a cloud and also its users work with each other to achieve ultimate security. The best thing for a user is to report issues regarding cloud to their service providers (cloud and also their internet providers). The solution for network availability is simply the creation and viability of web facility to cloud users. Improvements: Web users and data facility providers require to examine the way to control issues and apply various techniques to prevent loss of signal, such as improve their coverage in areas hard to reach and provide more concise network signal coverage in urban areas. In fact, a signal enhancer has been hard to reach areas such as rural areas. This requires an advanced algorithm from computer programmers.

Improving on-plot sanitation management in low-income settlements of cities of developing countries: case study from Maputo, Mozambique

Whereas water service coverage in urban areas of developing countries was estimated at 94% of the urban population in 2011, coverage for sanitation services was much lower, estimated at 74%. This paper reports on the sanitation situation in Maputo's low-income settlements, and highlights the important role played by non-state actors in providing solid waste management (SWM) and faecal sludge management (FSM) services to most residents of Maputo's low-income settlements. Data were collected in 2011, through analysis of policy/bproject documents, semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, and observations in three neighbourhoods. While SWM services in Maputo have tremendously improved, there are huge service gaps in emptying, transporting and disposing of faecal sludge from pit-latrines, the most dominant sanitation facility in Maputo. There is need to create a conducive environment for more effective engagement with non-state actors so as to scale up delivery of FSM services. Lessons from SWM can be adapted for FSM in Maputo and cities of other developing countries.

Rural:urban inequalities in post 2015 targets and indicators for drinking-water

Disparities in access to drinking water between rural and urban areas are pronounced. Although use of improved sources has increased more rapidly in rural areas, rising from 62% in 1990 to 81% in 2011, the proportion of the rural population using an improved water source remains substantially lower than in urban areas. Inequalities in coverage are compounded by disparities in other aspects of water service. Not all improved sources are safe and evidence from a systematic review demonstrates that water is more likely to contain detectable fecal indicator bacteria in rural areas. Piped water on premises is a service enjoyed primarily by those living in urban areas so differentiating amongst improved sources would exacerbate rural:urban disparities yet further. We argue that an urban bias may have resulted due to apparent stagnation in urban coverage and the inequity observed between urban and peri-urban areas. The apparent stagnation at around 95% coverage in urban areas stems in part from relative population growth – over the last two decades more people gained access to improved water in urban areas. There are calls for setting higher standards in urban areas which would exacerbate the already extreme rural disadvantage. Instead of setting different targets, health, economic, and human rights perspectives, We suggest that the focus should be kept on achieving universal access to safe water (primarily in rural areas) while monitoring progress towards higher service levels, including greater water safety (both in rural and urban areas and among different economic strata).

Extraction of multilayer vegetation coverage using airborne LiDAR discrete points with intensity information in urban areas: A case study in Nanjing City, China

Urban vegetation is of a strategic importance for the life quality in the increasing urbanized societies. However, it is still difficult to extract accurately urban vegetation vertical distribution with remote sensing images. This paper presented an effective method to extract multilayer vegetation coverage in urban areas using airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) discrete points with intensity information. It was applied in Nanjing City, one of the ecological cities in China. Firstly, a median filtering algorithm based on discrete points was used to restrain high-frequency noise. The airborne LiDAR data intensities of different urban objects were analyzed and obtained three rules, which can distinguish between vegetation and non-vegetation in urban areas, after removing the influence of topography. According to the footprint size and principles of distribution of the point cloud, multilayer vegetation coverage, including trees, shrubs and grass, was achieved by the inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation method. The results show that the overall accuracy of the vegetation point classification is 94.57%, which is much accurate than that of the methods in TerraSolid software, through comparing with the investigation in the field and Digital Orthophoto Maps (DOM). This method proposed in our work can be applied to in the extraction of multilayer vegetation coverage in urban area.

Increasing coverage in mass drug administration for lymphatic filariasis elimination in an urban setting: a study of Malindi Town, Kenya.

IntroductionImplementation of Mass Drug Administration (MDA) in urban settings is an obstacle to Lymphatic Filariasis (LF) elimination. No urban-specific guidelines on MDA in urban areas exist. Malindi district urban area had received 4 MDA rounds by the time the current study was implemented. Programme data showed average treatment coverage of 28.4% (2011 MDA), far below recommended minimum of 65–80%.MethodsTo identify, design and test strategies for increased treatment coverage in urban areas, a quasi-experimental study was conducted in Malindi urban area. Three sub-locations with lowest treatment coverage in 2011 MDA were purposively selected. In the pre-test phase, 947 household heads sampled using systematic random method were interviewed for quantitative data. For qualitative data, 12 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with single sex adult and youth male and female groups and 3 with community drug distributors (CDDs) were conducted. Forty in-depth interviews with opinion leaders and self-administered questionnaires with District Public Health officers purposively selected were carried out. The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 16 and statistical significance assessed by χ2 test.The qualitative data were analyzed manually according to study's themes.Results and DiscussionThe identified strategies were implemented prior to and during 2012 MDA in two sub-locations (experimental) while in the third (control), usual MDA strategies were applied. In the post-test phase, 2012 MDA coverage in experimental and control sub-locations was comparatively assessed for effect of the newly designed strategies on urban MDA. Results indicated improved treatment coverage in experimental sub-locations, 77.1% in Shella and 66.0% in Barani. Central (control) sub-location also attained high coverage, 70.4% indicating average treatment coverage of 71%.ConclusionThe identified strategies contributed to increased treatment coverage in experimental sites and should be applied in urban areas. Due to closeness of sites, spillover effects may have contributed to increased coverage in the control site.