Canopy Cover Research Articles

Mapping of Dominant Tree Species in Yunnan Province Based on Sentinel-2 Time-Series Data and Assessment of the Influence of Understory Background on Mapping Accuracy

Accurate information on the location of dominant tree species is essential for scientific forest management. However, factors like changes in forest phenology, stand conditions, and mixed understory backgrounds introduce uncertainties in remote sensing-based species mapping. To address these challenges, this study maps dominant tree species using time series Sentinel-2 data combined with environmental context data. To quantify the impact of understory background on mapping accuracy, this study applied a random forest inversion model to estimate the canopy cover across the study area. Binary contour plots and Pearson’s correlation coefficient were used to quantify the relationship between canopy cover and classification uncertainty at both the grid and pixels. A 10 m resolution map of dominant tree species in Yunnan Province, featuring eight species, was produced with an overall accuracy of 83.52% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.8115. The value between the predicted and actual tree area proportions was greater than 0.93, with RMSEs consistently below 2.6. In addition, we observed strong negative correlations between different canopy cover classes. The correlations were −0.67 for low-cover areas, −0.40 for medium-cover areas, and −0.73 for high-cover areas. Our mapping framework enables the accurate identification of regional dominant species, and the established relationship between understory context and classification uncertainty provides valuable insights for analyzing potential mapping errors.

Tree species identity shapes the relationship between canopy cover and herb‐layer species in temperate forests

Abstract The composition of canopy tree species is known to impact the distribution of herb‐layer species through various factors, such as light availability, soil structure and composition. However, relationships between these strata have been rarely demonstrated empirically across a wide range of species and large spatial areas, which could help understand and spatially predict herb‐layer species distribution patterns. We examined the response of 85 herb‐layer species occurrence (presence/absence) distribution to the cover of 105 tree species across 7255 sites in mainland France. By accounting for site characteristics and canopy diversity, we ensured that associations between herbaceous and tree species were not a reflection of these factors. We then predicted the occurrence distribution of herbaceous species by considering these environmental factors and comparing them with the addition of individual tree species cover. Our models revealed that tree species identity cover relationships are important for all herb‐layer species and with some strong associations between these two strata. While all herb‐layer species had increased explanatory and predictive model performance from the information added by tree species identity cover, non‐forest and open vegetation species showed the greatest increase. Non‐forest generalist species are those with the most negative associations with these canopy tree species. Models also highlighted that tree species identity cover cannot be fully replaced by unidimensional functional tree groups based on trophic, dynamic, hydric or life form classification. Our study emphasizes that incorporating tree species identity composition can enhance the prediction of herb‐layer species occurrence distribution at new sites. Consequently, we provide an empirical demonstration of improved prediction leveraging on species associations, which synthesizes various factors challenging to measure in situ. This knowledge could guide future experiments to explore mechanisms involved, especially for the high‐magnitude associations detected. Synthesis. Our study is an empirical demonstration of the importance of tree species identity cover in shaping the distribution of the herb layer, surpassing the effects of tree diversity alone. By considering the significance of tree species identity cover, we can inform forest management and conservation measures, improve spatial prediction of herb‐layer species distribution and better understand herb layer and tree species relationships.

Evolutionary Drivers of Conspicuous Spots in Velvet Ants (Hymenoptera: Dasymutilla).

Predation plays an important role in animal evolution by selecting for antipredator adaptations. Antipredator color adaptations include conspicuous spots, which are believed to provide protection by deflecting attacks to harmful or peripheral body parts, deimatic signaling, or as conspicuous warning coloration. The utility of antipredator signals is context-dependent and may be influenced by the environment. In this study, we investigated the selective forces acting on the evolution of conspicuous spots on velvet ants (Mutillidae: Dasymutilla). We tested whether conspicuous spots in 80 species of velvet ants evolved in (i) forest-dwelling species, (ii) habitat-generalist species, or (iii) species predated by diverse birds and frogs. Results show that conspicuous spots are more likely to evolve in forest-dwelling species and in areas with more canopy cover, whereas species inhabiting open areas and deserts tend to lose them. Moreover, taxa with conspicuous spots transition between open and forested habitats less often. Spot presence was not associated with predator diversity. We suggest that spots in velvet ants require complex visual environments to be effective, which may limit their habitat occurrence. In simpler environments, carrying conspicuous spots could be costly due to increased exposure to visual predators.

Assessing Seasonal Thermal Environment of Two Tree Species: Integrating Modeling and In-Situ Data in Hot-Summer and Cold-Winter Climates

Trees significantly contribute to improving the outdoor thermal environment during hot summers. However, their negative impacts during the winter months in hot-summer and cold-winter regions should also be considered. The current study investigates the seasonal effects of two common tree species on the thermal environment in such climates. In-situ measurements and numerical simulations were conducted on an open campus, and idealized experiments were designed based on the observations. Strategies involving tree selection to optimize the thermal environment year-round were proposed. Our findings show that evergreen broad-leaved trees, with their denser canopies, provide a more extensive and intense cooling effect throughout the year compared to deciduous broad-leaved trees. The benefit threshold for the canopy coverage of evergreen broad-leaved trees is 40%, and the efficiency threshold of deciduous broad-leaved trees is 10%. At the same canopy coverage, deciduous broad-leaved trees create a larger area of suitable thermal comfort throughout the year and conserve more heating energy in winter (8.24 × 109J/ha) compared to evergreen broad-leaved trees. We suggest that the use of deciduous broad-leaved trees is a more effective strategy for improving the thermal environment in hot-summer and cold-winter regions.

AquaCrop model to optimize water supply for a sustainable processing tomato cultivation in the Mediterranean area: A multi-objective approach

CONTEXTEfficient irrigation management must consider multiple aspects of cropping systems, such as productivity, water use efficiency, and economic viability. Crop simulation models like AquaCrop are essential tools for analyzing crop responses under different irrigation scenarios. Organizing the model's outputs into standardized parameters allows for a multi-objective evaluation, which can be consolidated into a single index for optimizing irrigation strategies. OBJECTIVEThis study aims to formalize the response of processing tomato cropping systems in Southern Italy to various irrigation regimes and develop a framework to identify optimal irrigation volumes for production, water use efficiency, and economic returns. METHODSAquaCrop was used to assess the effects of different seasonal water supplies on dry yield, water use efficiency, and irrigation water use efficiency. Sustainability was evaluated via the blue water footprint and drainage, while economic sustainability was measured through net income and irrigation economic efficiency. A multi-objective evaluation framework was built, developed to consolidate performance indices into a single multi-aggregated index (Imobj). The AquaCrop model was calibrated and validated using field data, with high accuracy in simulating canopy cover, biomass, and dry yield (NRMSE < 30 %, r > 0.90, and d > 0.97). Polynomial regression was used to model the relationships between irrigation volumes and cropping system variables. Each variable was assigned a truth value (TWi), derived from regression coefficients, statistical significance, and model fit. These values were normalized using a sigmoid function and consolidated into the Imobj index, providing an overall measure of irrigation performance. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSAquaCrop accurately simulated canopy cover, biomass, and dry yield. Multi-objective analysis showed yield and profitability were most sensitive to irrigation changes, followed by drainage, blue water footprint, and water use efficiency. The 500 mm irrigation regime yielded the highest productivity and profitability but negatively impacted water use efficiency and environmental sustainability. Irrigation volumes above 500 mm worsened all water-related variables, while volumes of 400 mm reduced profitability but improved the sustainability. The Imobj index identified that irrigation between 300 mm and 400 mm provided the best trade-off across all evaluated variables. SIGNIFICANCEThis study highlights the value of integrating crop productivity, economic viability, and sustainability into irrigation management. The proposed framework, combined with AquaCrop, offers a holistic tool for optimizing irrigation strategies in agriculture. It emphasizes the need for balanced irrigation that not only maximizes yield but also enhances resource efficiency and environmental sustainability.

Forest canopy cover estimation with machine learning using GEDI and Landsat data in the Western Marmara Region, Türkiye

Abstract Forests play a crucial role in carbon dioxide absorption, biodiversity preservation, and climate regulation. Timely and precise maps detailing tree cover attributes are vital tools for the fields of environmental research and natural resource management. This study addresses the challenge of accurately estimating forest canopy cover by integrating Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) and Landsat data in the Eastern Marmara Region of Türkiye. Despite the advancements in remote sensing technologies such as light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and optical sensors, and the importance of forest canopy cover in assessing forest health and carbon stocks, there is limited research on utilizing spaceborne GEDI Level 2B data for forest canopy cover mapping. Six different machine learning methods were employed, namely Classification and Regression Trees (CART), Categorical Boosting (CTB), Light Gradient Boosting Machines (LGBM), Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), Random Forest (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGB), to generate forest canopy cover maps using Landsat 8 and 9 satellite images with a variety of vegetation indices and texture features. Model performances were evaluated using metrics such as R2, Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), and Median Absolute Error (MdAE), with statistical significance assessed via Friedman and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. The results of the tests indicated that the XGB (R2 = 0.5570, RMSE = 0.1603, MdAE = 0.0885) and RF (R2 = 0.5497, RMSE = 0.1617, MdAE = 0.0896) algorithms, which were trained with GEDI Level 2B data, provided greater accuracy in forest canopy cover estimation compared to the other algorithms. This study offers insight into the prediction performance of GEDI Level 2B spaceborne LiDAR data in conjunction with XGB and RF algorithms for forest canopy cover estimation and underscores the significance of integrating advanced remote sensing data for forest monitoring.

Impacts of street tree canopy coverage on pedestrians' dynamic thermal perception and walking willingness

Impacts of street tree canopy coverage on pedestrians' dynamic thermal perception and walking willingness

Precision Agriculture: Temporal and Spatial Modeling of Wheat Canopy Spectral Characteristics

This study investigates the dynamic changes in wheat canopy spectral characteristics across seven critical growth stages (Tillering, Pre-Jointing, Jointing, Post-Jointing, Booting, Flowering, and Ripening) using UAV-based multispectral remote sensing. By analyzing four key spectral bands—green (G), red (R), red-edge (RE), and near-infrared (NIR)—and their combinations, we identify spectral features that reflect changes in canopy activity, health, and structure. Results show that the green band is highly sensitive to chlorophyll activity and low canopy coverage during the Tillering stage, while the NIR band captures structural complexity and canopy density during the Jointing and Booting stages. The combination of G and NIR bands reveals increased canopy density and spectral concentration during the Booting stage, while the RE band effectively detects plant senescence and reduced spectral uniformity during the ripening stage. Time-series analysis of spectral data across growth stages improves the accuracy of growth stage identification, with dynamic spectral changes offering insights into growth inflection points. Spatially, the study demonstrates the potential for identifying field-level anomalies, such as water stress or disease, providing actionable data for targeted interventions. This comprehensive spatio-temporal monitoring framework improves crop management and offers a cost-effective, precise solution for disease prediction, yield forecasting, and resource optimization. The study paves the way for integrating UAV remote sensing into precision agriculture practices, with future research focusing on hyperspectral data integration to enhance monitoring models.

Effect of drought disturbance in a sclerophyll forest on the micromammal community in the Río Clarillo National Park, Metropolitan Region, Chile

Effect of drought disturbance in a sclerophyll forest on the micromammal community in the Río Clarillo National Park, Metropolitan Region, Chile

Impact of Management Practices on Coffee-Pine Agroforestry: Coffee Yield and Soil Respiration

The coffee-pine agroforestry system offers a promising solution to enhance coffee yields and maintain soil health on degraded lands. This study aims to evaluate the impact of various agroforestry management practices on coffee yield and soil respiration. The experiment was conducted using a complete randomized block design across five management treatments: without management, without fertilization, organic fertilization, mixed fertilization, and recommended management by Perhutani. The observed parameters included coffee yield, soil respiration, soil moisture, soil temperature, litter biomass, canopy cover, and soil organic carbon (SOC) content. Results indicated that the recommended management (RM) plot achieved the highest coffee yield (834 kg ha⁻¹), attributed to wider planting spacing, which reduced resource competition between coffee and pine trees. The RM plot also displayed stable soil moisture and temperature, supporting coffee growth. Meanwhile, soil respiration showed no significant differences across treatments, though the mixed fertilization (MF) plot exhibited the highest respiration rate, indicating higher microbial activity due to combined fertilizer use. In conclusion, optimal management in agroforestry systems can enhance coffee productivity while preserving soil health. Keywords: Agroforestry, Coffee Yield, Soil Management, Soil Moisture, Soil Respiration.

Tree Crown Damage and Physiological Responses Under Extreme Heatwave in Heterogeneous Urban Habitat of Central China

(1) Background: Global warming has intensified dry heatwaves, threatening urban tree health and ecosystem services. Crown damage in trees is a key indicator of heat stress, linked to physiological changes and urban habitat characteristics, but the specific mechanisms remain to be explored. (2) Methods: This study investigated the heatwave-induced crown damage of Wuhan’s urban tree species, focusing on the influence of physiological responses and urban habitats. Crown damage was visually scored, and physiological responses were measured via stomatal conductance (Gs) and transpiration rate (Tr). (3) Results: Significant interspecific differences in crown damage were identified, with Prunus × yedoensis showing the highest degree of crown damage, while Pittosporum tobira displayed the lowest. A strong correlation was observed between crown damage and Gs and Tr, albeit with species-specific variations. The Degree of Building Enclosure (DegBE) emerged as the most prominent habitat factor, with a mitigating effect on crown damage, followed by the Percentage of Canopy Coverage (PerCC), in contrast with the Percentage of Impermeable Surface (PerIS) that showed a significant positive correlation. (4) Conclusions: The above findings suggest that species traits and habitat configurations interact in complex ways to shape tree resilience under heatwave stress, informing strategies for urban vegetation protection against heat stress in Central Chinese cities.

Effect of Weed Management Practices on Citrus Growth and Cost of Production at Young Mandarin Orchard in Palpa, Nepal

ABSTRACT Although citrus cultivation has a comparative advantage in subtropical climates, meeting the increasing demand is challenging, primarily due to weed pressure contributing 25–33% yield loss. Henceforth, to assess the efficiency of weed management methods, enhance plant growth, and analyze economic treatment costs, research was conducted in a three-year-old mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco.) orchard at Citrus Development Center, Tansen, Palpa, in 2022. The experiment was designed in a single factorial randomized complete block design with five treatments: plastic mulch, organic mulch, herbicide, hand weeding, and a control. Fourteen weed species were identified, and the highest weed density was of sedges (45%). Results of the study showed that plastic mulch was an efficient method providing lower average weed diversity (1.7); weed density in all days after treatment (DAT) (0.5, 0.6, 1.9, 6.6, and 1.1 m−2); and weed dry weight at 15, 30, and 45 DAT (0.1, 0.3, and 0.4 gm−2). Plastic mulch observed with higher weed control efficiency (93.9, 87.1, 93.1, 91.8, and 93.4%) and weed control index (89.6%, 85.8%, 93.8%, 90.8%, and 96.35%) in all DAT. Whereas, the weed persistence index was lower in herbicide-treated plots at 30 (0.73), 45 (0.44), and 75 (0.24) DAT. Herbicide-treated plots showed the highest increment in crop growth parameters of plant height (33.7%) and plant canopy cover volume (180.8%) and were also the most economical with the lower annual treatment cost (NPR 210 thousand/ha). The superior plant growth, higher weed control, and lower cost proved herbicide treatment as an effective weed control method. However, plastic mulch, with outcomes resembling herbicide, can be a sustainable approach for weed control.

Urban Street Greening and Resident Comfort: An Integrated Approach Based on High-Precision Shadow Distribution and Facade Visual Assessment

With the acceleration of global climate change and urbanization, the urban heat island effect has significantly impacted the quality of life of urban residents. Although numerous studies have focused on macro-scale factors such as air temperature, surface albedo, and green space coverage, relatively little attention has been paid to micro-scale factors, such as shading provided by building facades and tree canopy coverage. However, these micro-scale factors play a significant role in enhancing pedestrian thermal comfort. This study focuses on a city community in China, aiming to assess the thermal comfort of urban streets during the summer. Utilizing high-resolution 3D geographic data and street view images extracted from drone data, this study comprehensively considers the mechanisms affecting the urban street thermal environment and the human comfort requirements for shading and greening. By proposing quantitative indicators from multiple scales and dimensions, this study thoroughly quantifies the impact of the surrounding environment, greening, shading effects, buildings, and road design on the thermal comfort of summer streets. The results show that increasing tree canopy coverage by 10 m can significantly reduce the surrounding temperature, and a building layout extending 200 m can regulate temperature. The distribution of shadows at different times significantly affects thermal comfort, while the sky view factor negatively correlates with thermal comfort. Environments with a high green view index enhance visual comfort. This study reveals the specific contributions of different environmental characteristics to street thermal comfort and identifies factors that significantly impact thermal comfort. This provides a scientific basis for urban green space planning and thermal comfort improvement, holding substantial practical significance.

Invasion of temperate riparian forests by Acacia dealbata affects macroinvertebrate community structure in streams

The riparian forest determines many of the stream characteristics such as physicochemical variables and the availability and quality of food resources for aquatic communities. In central Portugal, native mixed deciduous forests are being heavily invaded by Acacia dealbata, which is an evergreen and nitrogen-fixing tree species, but effects on stream benthic macroinvertebrate communities are unknown. We assessed invasion effects on macroinvertebrate communities by comparing streams flowing through native forests (native streams) and streams flowing through forests heavily invaded by A. dealbata (invaded streams), in central Portugal. We did not find major differences in macroinvertebrate abundance, total taxa richness or diversity between native and invaded streams, due to high variation among native streams. However, taxonomic structure of macroinvertebrate communities differed between stream types, with invaded streams showing lower percentage of sensitive taxa. Macroinvertebrate communities structure based on functional feeding groups also differed between stream types, with a tendency for higher abundance of shredders and scrapers/grazers and lower abundance of filter feeders in native than invaded streams, probably due to altered composition of leaf litter inputs and canopy cover within invaded streams. Our findings suggest that invasion by A. dealbata affect macroinvertebrate community mostly in terms of taxonomic and functional structure. Since A. dealbata is rapidly spreading in all southern Europe, this study highlights the importance of enhancing the comprehension of its impact on aquatic communities to identify ecological risks and formulate effective mitigation strategies.

Waterhole utilization pattern of mammals in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan

Most studies on waterholes come from arid and semi-arid countries where water availability for wildlife is limited. Bhutan is a country with rich running water sources. Less is known about the waterhole usage by wildlife in the country. The present study aimed to understand the importance and usage pattern of waterholes by mammals in the protected areas of Bhutan. Thirty waterholes in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan were monitored for dry and wet seasons. A generalized linear model was used to assess the impact of various waterhole parameters on mammal usage of the waterholes. Seven out of 12 parameters studied showed a significant impact on waterhole visitation by mammalian species. When water availability and salinity showed a positive impact on waterhole visits by mammals, distance from agricultural land, altitude, herb density, canopy cover, and livestock presence showed a negative impact. The study shows that even in the presence of major running water sources, waterholes are well utilized by mammals independent of seasons with ungulates being the most frequent visitors in the waterholes. This shows the importance of waterholes in protected areas of the country for better management of wildlife.

Examining low-intensity surface fires in boreal forests using sentinel-2 time series and bitemporal terrestrial laser scanning

ABSTRACT In Fennoscandia, wildfires are typically low-intensity surface fires that burn vegetation on the forest floor. Multispectral remote sensing, particularly the normalized burn ratio (NBR) index, is widely used to assess burn severity, but its effectiveness in identifying surface fires under dense canopies is less studied. This study examined the characteristics of surface fires across seven one-hectare test sites in Scots pine-dominated boreal forests in Finland. Fire-induced spectral changes, measured as difference normalized burn ratio (dNBR) values from Sentinel-2 data, were compared with structural changes on the forest floor measured using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). Breakpoint analysis of NBR time series identified most surface fires, with a noticeable decline in NBR values. Fires not identified with the breakpoint analysis had less burned ground vegetation and denser canopy cover. A moderate correlation (r = –0.5) was observed between spectral and volumetric changes, with higher dNBR values corresponding to greater vegetation reduction. However, dense canopies lowered burn severity despite similar ground vegetation volume changes. NBR changes were explained by vegetation volume, canopy cover, and site conditions (R² = 84%). These findings improve understanding of the applicability of multispectral remote sensing in detecting fires, assessing burn area, and estimating burn severity in boreal forests.

Assessment of land suitability and crop water requirements for irrigated sugarcane in the Kuraz Irrigation Scheme, Lower Omo Basin, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Assessing land suitability is crucial for sustainable agricultural production. This study focuses on evaluating the suitability of land for irrigated sugarcane cultivation and determining crop water requirements within the Kuraz Irrigation Scheme in Ethiopia. A combination of geographic information system (GIS) and analytical hierarchy process (AHP) tools was used to classify land suitability and support decision-making by considering factors such as soil pH, texture, temperature, rainfall, land use-land cover, and slope. The AquaCrop model was utilized to simulate current and future scenarios for biomass, canopy cover, yield, maximum evapotranspiration, and water productivity of sugarcane crops. The model was calibrated for irrigated sugarcane during the 2015–2016 crop season, revealing that the majority of the study area is highly suitable for sugarcane cultivation. Specifically, 28% of the area was classified as highly suitable, 38% as moderately suitable, 21% as marginally suitable, and 13% as unsuitable. These findings highlight the potential for expanding sugarcane cultivation to boost yields and profitability. However, the study also underscores the need to consider potential environmental impacts, such as water usage and soil degradation from agricultural expansion. Additionally, social factors, including labor practices and the possible displacement of local communities, must be taken into account when expanding sugarcane cultivation.

Mangrove biomass productivity and sediment carbon storage assessment at selected sites in Mauritius: The effect of tidal inundation, forest age and mineral availability

Abstract CO2 is the most abundant anthropogenic greenhouse gas released in the environment and is considered one of the main drivers of global warming and ensuing climate change. Biological carbon sequestration mitigates CO2 through ecosystems like forests, wetlands, and agricultural lands. Mangrove forests, being highly carbon-dense ecosystems, sequester significant carbon in their biomass and soils. This study aims at evaluating the carbon storage potential of R.mucronatanatural and planted forests in Mauritius and the effect of tidal inundation and mineral availability.&amp;#xD;Plant height and diameter at breast height were measured in situ with the GLOBE Observer application and a measuring tape, respectively. Rate of canopy coverage over the past twenty years was assessed using historical Landsat images available on Google Earth Pro. Allometric equations were used to estimate the above-ground biomass (AGB) and below-ground biomass (BGB) of R.mucronata. Total organic carbon (TOC) and all essential nutrients for plant growth were analysed using standard methods. &amp;#xD;Our findings show that in both natural and planted forests, the more inundated zones were first established. However, tree and sapling density and AGB were negatively correlated with sodium (r = -0.830; -0.880, respectively). Positive correlations between AGB and NO3-N, NH4-N, phosphate, and manganese suggest that these minerals were limiting factors. Nevertheless, the combination of forest age and salinity was found to play key roles on the AGB and TOC, which is linked to materials originating from the mangroves. It is noteworthy that the Ferney forest with a relatively lower salinity (5-15 ppt) and the only forest that had already reached a steady state in 2010, had a relatively much higher AGB (326.2±26.3 t ha-1) than the global average for R.mucronata (94.8 t ha-1), let alone Rhizophora spp. (281 t ha-1). The TOC registered at Ferney (47.34%) was also higher than the global values reported (2.00±2.20% to 40.00±2.20%)

Assessment of Mango Canopy Water Content Through the Fusion of Multispectral Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and Sentinel-2 Remote Sensing Data

This study proposes an Additive Wavelet Transform (AWT)-based method to fuse Multispectral UAV (MS UAV, 5 cm resolution) and Sentinel-2 satellite imagery (10–20 m resolution), generating 5 cm resolution fused images with a focus on near-infrared and shortwave infrared bands to enhance the accuracy of mango canopy water content monitoring. The fused Sentinel-2 and MS UAV data were validated and calibrated using field-collected hyperspectral data to construct vegetation indices, which were then used with five machine learning (ML) models to estimate Fuel Moisture Content (FMC), Equivalent Water Thickness (EWT), and canopy water content (CWC). The results indicate that the addition of fused Sentinel-2 data significantly improved the estimation accuracy of all parameters compared to using MS UAV data alone, with the Genetic Algorithm Backpropagation Neural Network (GABP) model performing best (R2 = 0.745, 0.859, and 0.702 for FMC, EWT, and CWC, respectively), achieving R2 improvements of 0.066, 0.179, and 0.210. Slope, canopy coverage, and human activities were identified as key factors influencing the spatial variability of FMC, EWT, and CWC, with CWC being the most sensitive to environmental changes, providing a reliable representation of mango canopy water status.

Thermal ecology of the Mexican Garter Snake (Thamnophis eques): temporal and spatial variations.

Heterogeneous environments provide different daily and seasonal thermal conditions for snakes, resulting in temporal and spatial variations in body temperature (Tb). This study analyzes the Tb of Thamnophis eques in the forest and grassland of a Mexican locality through daily and seasonal profiling. The patterns were obtained from seminatural enclosures in the field with a point sampling strategy to analyze temporal and spatial variations in Tb. The variation of Tb throughout the day was correlated with air and substrate temperatures, both in the grassland and in the forest. The average Tb in the grassland was 0.88 °C greater than in the forest. Our results indicate that T. eques showed differences in Tb between grassland and forest, principally in late spring and early summer during the early rise and late plateau phases, coinciding with the presence of foliage on the willow trees present in the study area, while in late summer and early autumn, the Tb was similar when willow trees canopy cover was absent (May-September). Our results support the hypothesis that the Tb of snakes differ between forests when the willows have leaves and is similar when canopy cover is equivalent, in this case, when tree canopy cover was absent. Our results also shown that T. eques presented daily and seasonal warming patterns similar to other Arizona populations and like those of other northern Gartersnakes. However, this result may not be valid for the entire wide distribution and consequent diversity of habitats of T. eques. The information of Tb in T. eques through daily and seasonal profiles in different habitats could aid in understanding the effects of environmental conditions on the ecological strategies deployed by snakes on habitat selection.