Courtyard Spaces Research Articles

DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR THE URBAN INTERPRETATION OF COURTYARD SPACES IN HISTORIC CITIES: DESIGN AND SOCIAL ASPECTS

The shift in the urban paradigm during the 20th century led to a significant reconsideration of the living space of city residents. The principles of the modernist worldview, which acquired the nature of a universal urban design strategy in the Athens Charter of 1931, initiated a negative attitude towards the block development that had prevailed before. The courtyard spaces inherent in it started to be perceived as insufficient, and their original concept as places of recreation and social interaction was redefined. As a result, the internal environments of blocks were spontaneously used by residents for various purposes, leading to their degradation and chaos. This was particularly relevant to Ukrainian cities, where the population of historic centres was densifying, with an increased impact on all types of spaces. The crisis of modernist urban design and the expansion of postmodern values have returned attention to historical heritage as an auxiliary source of shaping and removed the intensity of the confrontation between the ‘contemporary’ modernist worldview and the ‘historical’ one. Subsequently, urban concepts have absorbed many ideas related to the environmental discourse, inclusiveness, barrier-free accessibility, pedestrian accessibility, and density. All of this has significantly changed the understanding of approaches and principles of interpretation of historic urban spaces, including residential courtyards. The article considers promising urban design strategies that can be used for the contemporary interpretation of courtyard environments, primarily focused on design and social aspects. This is due to the methodological structure, which is based on a dual understanding of the priorities of this process. On the one hand, courtyard spaces are perceived as places of recreation and greening, and on the other hand, as environments for socialising and community bonding. In this regard, four urban design strategies have been identified that may form the basis of certain areas of urban design in the future: a) functional universalisation; b) spatial diversification; c) communicative adaptability; d) variable accessibility. The first strategy refers to the integration of courtyard spaces into measures to introduce walkability and optimal density. In this case, we are dealing with introducing a number of functions into courtyard spaces that were typical of external street areas, but aimed at the nearest residents. The second strategy is aimed at returning to the ideology of green oases and recreational areas, with further expansion of spatial elements through vertical development. The strategy of communicative adaptability is related to the development of courtyards as places of gathering and solidarity of the resident’s community. The last strategy is related to the proposal to provide access to the courtyards to external visitors at certain times.

MODELLING STUDY ON CENTRAL COURTYARD SHADING STRATEGY IN TROPICAL CLIMATE REGION MALAYSIA

A courtyard is an open multi-functional space and an effective daylight passive design strategy in a building. However, to have a courtyard in a tropical country, it had to deal with the issue of visual discomfort, which requires some consideration in adaptation to the climate condition. These visual comfort issues include inconsistent light distribution, inappropriate illuminance levels, glare, and a lack of shaded areas. The focus of this research paper is to address the solution of shading strategies towards the visual discomfort issues associated with courtyard spaces. The solution is done by modelling study method on courtyard ratios and courtyard configuration to determine the effect on the internal courtyard percentage shaded area. This research aims to explore the potential benefits of using courtyards as a daylight shading design as a strategy in buildings. Besides, it is also to examine courtyard design variables in enhancing visual comfort, particularly in the context of commercial building design in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur is chosen to represent the tropical climate region. The aim is achieved by identifying optimum courtyard ratios that can improve daylight, shading, and visual comfort that make courtyards functional and usable spaces. Results show that a small and deep courtyard is found to be best suited to tropical climate conditions with the configuration of the courtyard’s height being double the size or more than the size of the courtyard’s width. This courtyard ratio is able to produce a full shaded area during daytime. While courtyard length does not have any impact on the percentage of shaded area, wide and narrow courtyard need to adapt to the tropical climate constraint by having aided shading strategies such as multi-layered height of trees, independent covered structures like a canopy or gazebo, shading panels, awnings, and extended roof overhangs.

Why does the courtyard spaces of same ethnic group present diverse characteristics in different regions： evidence based on ENVI-met climate modeling

The rapid urbanization in developing countries like China has led to a heightened challenge of climate degradation and the erosion of traditional ecological knowledge worldwide. The widespread distribution of Yi traditional settlements across various climatic zones in southwest China offers a unique opportunity to investigate the diverse courtyard spaces within the same ethnic group, influenced by distinct climatic environments. Through comprehensive field investigation, meticulous field measurement, and rigorous ENVI-met simulation, this study conducts a comparative analysis of microclimates in Yi typical courtyards across diverse climatic conditions. The results show that: 1) Courtyard plays a pivotal role in regulating microclimate dynamics across cold, temperate, and hot climatic conditions. 2) The microclimate regulation mechanism of a courtyard varies across different climatic environments. 3) The climate regulation efficacy of courtyards will diminish as the climate environment undergoes changes. 4) The aspect ratio (AR) is a key spatial factor which plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency of regulating courtyard microclimate. Concluded this study, the research findings not only provide valuable guidance for the protection planning and design of traditional Yi settlements in southwest China, but also offer significant insights for courtyard construction in other regions with extreme climates worldwide. In addition, this study constructs a new research framework for traditional settlements, which is of great significance for scientifically and accurately identifying the spatial value of traditional settlements and improving the theoretical system of traditional settlement protection and activation.

Visual Experimentation Research on Traditional Residential Courtyard Spaces Using Virtual Eye-Tracking Technology

Courtyard space serves as the soul of traditional residences in Southern China, representing a gem in traditional Chinese architecture. Courtyards play a multifaceted role in architecture, including functions such as lighting, ventilation, water collection, solar radiation, and environmental beautification. This paper, building upon previous research and theoretical foundations, takes three types of courtyards in "Kong House" as the research subjects. Through methods like data collection, literature analysis, questionnaire surveys, and eye-tracking experiments, the study investigates the spatial experience of courtyard spaces in traditional residences. It quantitatively validates the design theory of courtyard spaces, analyzes the similarities and differences in spatial experiences among comprehensive courtyards, landscape courtyards, and functional courtyards, and concludes the study. The experiments indicate that incorporating courtyard spaces in traditional residences can effectively influence human behavior patterns and perceptual choices. Comprehensive courtyards typically stimulate more exploration and lingering behaviors. The combination of virtual reality and eye-tracking experiments provides valuable visual information and statistical data for analyzing human behavior and evaluating traditional residential design schemes.

Visual Experimentation Research on Traditional Residential Courtyard Spaces Using Virtual Eye-Tracking Technology

Courtyard space serves as the soul of traditional residences in Southern China, representing a gem in traditional Chinese architecture. Courtyards play a multifaceted role in architecture, including functions such as lighting, ventilation, water collection, solar radiation, and environmental beautification. This paper, building upon previous research and theoretical foundations, takes three types of courtyards in "Kong House" as the research subjects. Through methods like data collection, literature analysis, questionnaire surveys, and eye-tracking experiments, the study investigates the spatial experience of courtyard spaces in traditional residences. It quantitatively validates the design theory of courtyard spaces, analyzes the similarities and differences in spatial experiences among comprehensive courtyards, landscape courtyards, and functional courtyards, and concludes the study. The experiments indicate that incorporating courtyard spaces in traditional residences can effectively influence human behavior patterns and perceptual choices. Comprehensive courtyards typically stimulate more exploration and lingering behaviors. The combination of virtual reality and eye-tracking experiments provides valuable visual information and statistical data for analyzing human behavior and evaluating traditional residential design schemes.

A study on factors influencing the spatial oppressiveness in small courtyard spaces within university residential areas

ABSTRACT A number of obstacles in terms of the growing demand for residential spaces for students in China's education industry. Changing urban development patterns often lead to densely populated, unpleasant university residential neighborhood, posing threats to the well-being of university personnel. This study addresses the limitations of past research, focusing on a real campus's enclosed high-rise student apartment courtyard. Using three key design variables (courtyard area, building height and ground-level interface transparency), 27 sample scenarios were developed for psychological experiments. The findings indicate that while visual scene complexity has minimal impact on oppression to confined environments, building exposure and sky visibility do. People's perception of openness is determined by building exposure, sky visibility, and visual complexity. Higher visual complexity and greater sky visibility enhance the sense of openness. Satisfaction is primarily influenced by sky visibility. The study also conducts a multiple linear regression of spatial and psychological indicators and discusses the tolerance threshold for spatial oppressiveness and the spatial oppressiveness under various spatial types of samples.

Impact of Plant Layout on Microclimate of Summer Courtyard Space Based on Orthogonal Experimental Design

With the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization, many green spaces have been replaced by urban buildings, resulting in decreased green spaces in courtyard space. Nonetheless, as an enclosed green space integrated with the natural environment, courtyard space plays a vital role in regulating environmental microclimate, so it is necessary to study its microclimate through vegetation greening. Therefore, this study took courtyard spaces in humid and hot areas as an example, and with the help of ENVI-met 5.5.1 software, introduced an orthogonal experimental design to simulate various plant layout models, including tree layout (TL), shrub layout (SL), grass layout (GL), and the interaction of their combined layout, and analyzed the simulation results of temperature, humidity, and wind speed. The results show that first of all, plant layout plays a crucial role in cooling and wind control, and the more uniform the plant layout, the better it is for cooling and ventilation. Secondly, plant layout showed a changing pattern of cooling and wetting in the morning, noon, and afternoon periods. Furthermore, TL had the best cooling and humidifying effect in the morning and midday, and the combined interaction of TL, SL, and GL and of SL and GL significantly affected the wind speed in the courtyard space. During the afternoon, the combined interaction of TL with SL and SL with GL outperformed the single-plant-element type of layout regarding cooling and humidification efficiency. Finally, scattered-form tree layout, single-form shrub layout, and 20% grass layout were the best combinations of plant layout for cooling, humidity reduction, and ventilation. The results provide reference data and an empirical case for the microclimate optimization of summer courtyard spaces.

Features of inner courtyard spaces in traditional Chinese dwellings and their application in modern regional architectural design

The article examines the formal characteristics and morphotypes of courtyard spaces in traditional Chinese dwellings, including compositional solutions for groups of courtyard spaces. Continuity of such spaces in modern regional architectural creativity is considered. Based on an analysis of several modern Chinese regional architectural projects, the ways of integrating the courtyard spaces of traditional Chinese buildings into a modern architectural context are discussed. Examples are provided, showing the reconstruction and metaphorical reinterpretation of both individual spaces and combined structures of group spaces of courtyards in the context of integration of modern architectural creativity with traditional national and regional architecture.

Early 20th century historical buildings with closed yard spaces in the city of Tambov

The emergence and evolution of closed courtyards, a new element of the urban planning structure in the late 19th-early 20th century, is described based on a study of three historical buildings with enclosed courtyard spaces located in the city of Tambov.

АНАЛИЗ ИСТОРИЧЕСКИХ ПОСТРОЕК НАЧАЛА XX ВЕКА С ЗАМКНУТЫМИ ДВОРОВЫМИ ПРОСТРАНСТВАМИ В Г. ТАМБОВЕ

This article describes the process of forming a new element of the urban planning structure, the closed courtyard, which was formed in the late 19th – early 20th century. To study this topic, an analysis is made of three historical buildings with closed courtyard spaces located in the city of Tambov, among them: 
 V.V. Galkin's apartment house, M. V. Aseev's apartment house and K. I. Turchaninov's apartment house.
 The article also proves the similarity of their configurations with the tenement houses of St. Petersburg: the tenement house of F. I. Lidval, the tenement house of G. G. von Goli and the tenement house of A. N. Pertsov, built in the same time period, the reasons and prerequisites are revealed for the formation of courtyard spaces of a single type in the late 19th - early 20th century.
 In addition, the article raises the question of the need to introduce a complex of buildings for the profitable house of M. V. Aseev, located at Tambov, st. M. Gorky, 49, in the register of OKN. As evidence of the need to include objects in the register, the value characteristics of the ensemble of the profitable house of M. V. Aseev are described.

Реконструкция благоустройства и озеленения жилой застройки 70-80 гг. на юго-востоке города Караганды

The article discusses the issues of reconstruction of green spaces and improvement of typical courtyard spaces that do not meet the modern needs of residents and the qualities of a modern living environment. The main problems of the study are the spontaneity of parking, the impersonality of the territory, and the lack of differentiation of the yard into zones for diverse social activities. Without clear functional zoning of a residential yard, the potential of empty spaces is devalued, which leads to a deterioration in the environmental and aesthetic qualities of residential areas, desolation and the “dying away” of green recreation areas. The comfort and safety of the microclimate of residential areas are the basis for the formation of a harmonious environment in multi-storey residential buildings. During the study, a questionnaires and surveys of neighborhood residents were conducted, as well as a functional analysis of existing residential areas. Based on aforementioned information and analogues of landscaping and improvement of residential courtyards in South Korea, conclusions are drawn regarding the similarities and differences in approaches, and a conceptual proposal is formed. The concept for the reconstruction of a residential courtyard is a unified system of principles for humanizing the city’s residential environment with minimal means of improvement, using “reserve territories” and regional natural and climatic features.

МОДЕРНІЗАЦІЯ ДВОРІВ БАГАТОКВАРТИРНОЇ ЖИТЛОВОЇ ЗАБУДОВИ В УКРАЇНІ: ПЕРЕДУМОВИ ТА ЗАВДАННЯ

The article considers the main approaches and means of urban planning optimization of courtyard spaces of residential apartment buildings in the late twentieth century in various areas of urban planning theory and practice. The purpose of the article is to substantiate them for implementation in Ukraine. The research is based on a comparison of the technical indicators of residential groups in Lviv (Ukraine), Leinefelde (Germany) and Kielce (Poland). The considered theoretical works and practical approaches are grouped by conceptual approaches and means of their realization: - renovation, reconstruction and construction of new buildings (in the context of sustainable development and energy efficiency); - previous point with a significant emphasis on the development of existing and saturation of spaces with new functions necessary to fully provide for the residents of the residential area; - a complex strategy for the development of the territory. The success or appropriateness of these approaches should be considered on a case-by-case basis, taking into account all available factors. The method of systematizing the available knowledge about the object of research and substantiating the needs for the object based on the development of quantitative indicators is used in the work. For the detailed analysis, we chose an area in the northern part of Lviv in the area of I. Mazepa Street, I. Mykolaychuk Street, and M. Khvylovoho Street, which is currently being intensively urbanized. The level of comfort and technical condition of housing built in Ukraine at the end of the twentieth century no longer meets the requirements of the present. This also applies to the courtyard space of these houses. Based on the authors' previous experience on this topic, the authors propose the next - the main method of modernizing the courtyards of residential apartment buildings is to reduce the area of functionally inefficient territories by introducing new functions - commercial and non-commercial, as a means of revitalizing the area.

Establishing a link between complex courtyard spaces and thermal comfort: A major advancement in evidence-based design

Amidst climate change, the importance of climate-adaptive design in architecture and landscape design has surged, particularly in residential courtyards, where optimizing the microclimate is paramount to residents' well-being. Traditional spatial indices, however, fall short in accurately characterizing complex courtyards and local spatial features. To overcome these limitations, this study introduces pixel-level spatial indicators that effectively overcome these constraints. These indicators are implemented using computational geometry algorithms such as Ray Tracing, Flood Fill, and A*, enabling simulation of various courtyard spatial indicator maps. We also utilize Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)-based rapid thermal comfort simulation technology to generate thermal comfort maps. By applying data mining methods such as Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR), Pearson correlation, and Nearest-neighbor interpolation, we explore the relationships between spatial indicators and thermal comfort, ultimately identifying key indicators and determining the guiding thresholds and influencing trends corresponding to heat discomfort frequency. Six key indicators and th emerge: Building View Factor (BVF), indicating building coverage visibility (prefer above 0.11); Solar Beam Fraction (BEAM), illustrating Summer solstice sun shading condition (prefer below 0.78); Averaged View Factor (AVF), showing overall visibility (prefer below 0.40); Directional Sky View Factor (DSVF(W)), reflecting sky visibility in a specific orientation (prefer below 0.73); Tree View Factor (TVF), denoting tree coverage visibility (prefer above 0.18); and Plan Water Ratio (PWR), signifying water surface proportion (aim for below 0.44). These insights, integrated into design tools, contribute to evidence-based microclimate regulation strategies, thereby enhancing urban residents' thermal comfort and overall well-being.

A Machine Learning-Based Approach to Evaluate the Spatial Performance of Courtyards—A Case Study of Beijing’s Old Town

The quality of residential buildings in old urban areas of Beijing is known to be inconsistent, prompting numerous urban renewal projects in the city. This research investigates how building space impacts energy usage and daylighting in courtyard areas of old urban regions in northern China. It also proposes a quick evaluation method for building performance in courtyard spaces, utilizing multi-objective optimization and machine learning classification prediction as a theoretical framework. A study was conducted to gather and organize building space parameters and their corresponding performances using a genetic algorithm. The dataset was then pre-processed and trained using the LightGBM algorithm. The model validation results revealed a recall of 0.9 and an F1-score of 0.8. These scores indicate that the design scheme’s performance level can be accurately identified in practical use. The goal of this study is to propose a set of rapid assessment methods for building performance levels in courtyard spaces. These methods can significantly improve the feedback efficiency between design decision and performance assessment, reduce the time wasted in building performance simulation during the architectural design process, and avoid unreasonable renovation and addition in urban renewal. Furthermore, the research method has universality and can be applied to courtyard-shaped buildings in other regions.

Architecture of the workers' settlement of the Kuibyshev metallurgical plant in the 1950s

The history of construction and features of the architectural and planning organization of the workers' settlement Metallurg, which was formed near the industrial district of Bezymyanka on the basis of the largest metallurgical plant in the 1950s, are considered. Its architecture reflected the features of Stalinist architecture and corresponded to the prevailing guidelines of that time for the development of the classical heritage. As a result, another version of the socialist city was implemented, based on attaching workers to production. The planning organization of the working settlement was based on the identification of the main highway with social and consumer services, the quarterly principle of residential development with courtyard spaces, and a single style of buildings.

Exploring the influence of residential courtyard space landscape elements on people's emotional health in an immersive virtual environment.

A good residential courtyard space not only brings people a psychological feeling of emotional pleasure but also attracts people to actively engage in more physical activities, which is of great significance to improving people's physical and mental health. Green vegetation and fitness facilities as the most preferred landscape elements in residential courtyard spaces and their effects on people's emotional health have not been further investigated. In this research, a virtual experiment was constructed in a residential courtyard space in Chengdu City, China, and electrodermal sensors were used to measure the real-time emotional changes of people in different virtual scenarios to analyze the effects of two landscape elements, green vegetation and fitness facilities, on people's emotional health, and the differences of such effects among different genders and ages. The results confirm that the combination of virtual reality technology and wearable physiological sensor measurement technology could effectively identify health-promoting landscape elements in urban environments; In residential courtyard spaces, green vegetation is more emotionally healthy than fitness facilities, and fitness facilities have better emotional health benefits for men and people over 30 years of age. The results of the study provide a quantitative basis for the healthier design and transformation of residential courtyard spaces for both green vegetation and fitness facilities.

Machine learning-based evaluation of dynamic thermal-tempering performance and thermal diversity for 107 Cambridge courtyards

The dynamic thermal conditions profoundly impact on the quality of physical, cultural, and social experiences in courtyard spaces. This research aims to identify the microclimatic dissimilarities between courtyards in terms of tempering seasonal–diurnal thermal extremes and enriching ground-level thermal textures. The methodology included field measurements in summer-2021 and winter-2022 in Cambridge, UK; microclimatic simulations of 107 courtyards in ENVI-met and model validations; and machine learning-driven clustering using Super Organising Maps (SuperSOM). The results indicate that the diurnal thermal range of the spatial-UTCI mean in summer (DTR(M)<24∘C) is double that in winter (DTR(M)<12∘C); meanwhile the maximum spatial-UTCI deviation is three times as significant (δ>3∘Cat 7:00 BST versus δ>1∘Cat 12:00 GMT). SuperSOM analysis was performed using K-means and hierarchical agglomerative clustering to partition all courtyards into seven subclusters on its graph-lattice structure. Clusters Km_I, Hac_I, and Hac_IV feature a positive synergy between the thermal-tempering and thermal-enriching potentials. In contrast, the other four clusters exhibit conflicting scenarios during the day and night across the two seasons analysed. These data-driven outcomes enabled us to optimise spatial and landscape strategies for designing and retrofitting courtyard microclimates, contributing to the current discussions on climate-responsive and sensation-inclusive design in historical urban contexts.

EXISTING PROBLEMS OF COURTYARD AREAS IN KAZAKHSTAN ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE CITY OF KARAGANDA

The article examines the courtyard areas of residential buildings during the period of industrial housing construction in the 70s-80s of XX century on the example of the city of Karaganda, Kazakhstan. The analysis of the current state of organization, functional zoning, and improvement of courtyard spaces is carried out. Arising the question of the problems in the organization of residential adjoining territories that arose in the past century and their accordance with economic growth and modernization of the country. The article considers what problems with the implementation of the project during the reorganization of the courtyard territory can appear.

Rethinking Outdoor Courtyard Spaces on University Campuses to Enhance Health and Wellbeing: The Anti-Virus Built Environment

Responding to the events surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic, this study explores how to improve health and wellbeing and reduce infections in outdoor open spaces on university campuses to maximize their potential as a response to future crises. The study identifies the relationship between human behavior (social) and the various physical and environmental elements of these spaces. A case study and mixed-methods approach were undertaken, comprising four modes of inspection: user analysis layer using questionnaires and observations to survey students’ needs and behavior; context analysis layer using space syntax and CFD to examine the space’s physical and environmental conditions; design solutions reflecting an understanding of virus transmission; and a performance analysis layer to test the performance of ‘anti-virus’ courtyards. The findings demonstrated that students are willing to use the open spaces that they used before the pandemic, at the same frequency. This indicates a need to redesign the current spaces to prevent the spread of viruses. The study highlights the social, physical, and environmental implications to be considered in designs for outdoor anti-virus spaces. It provides a comprehensive process for transforming outdoor spaces on university campuses into anti-virus spaces that meet users’ needs. These findings have implications for the designing and retrofitting of open spaces to reduce infection.

Courtyard design impact on indoor thermal comfort and utility costs for residential households: Comparative analysis and deep-learning predictive model

A courtyard is an architectural design element which is often known as microclimate modifiers and is responsible to increase the indoor occupant comfort in traditional architecture. The aim of this study is to conduct a parametric evaluation of courtyard design variants in a residential building of different climates with a focus on indoor thermal comfort and utility costs. A brute-force approach is applied to generate a wide range of design alternatives and the simulation workflow is conducted by Grasshopper together with the environmental plugins Ladybug and Honeybee. The main study objective is the evaluation of the occupant thermal comfort in an air-conditioned residential building, energy load, and cost analysis, derived from different design variables including courtyard geometry, window-to-wall ratio, envelope materials, heating, and cooling set-point dead-bands, and building geographical location. Furthermore, a Deep Learning model is developed using the inputs and outputs of the simulation and analysis to transform the outcomes into the algorithmic and tangible environment feasible for predictive applications. The results suggest that regarding the thermal loads, costs, and indoor thermal comfort index (PMV), there are high correlations between the outdoor weather variation and dead-band ranges, while in extreme climates such as Singapore, courtyard spaces might not be efficient enough as expected. Finally, the highly accurate deep learning model is also developed, delivering superior predictive capabilities for the thermal comfort and utility costs of the courtyard designs.